INTRODUCTION TO CROSS-

CULTURAL MANAGEMENT
Topic 7:
Culture and Communication
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Chapter Learning Outcome

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

1 Understand the concept of intercultural communication

2 Culture and choice of communication mode.

3 Barriers in cross-cultural management communication

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 Understand the concept of
intercultural communication

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Definition of communication

• Message: Information and meaning exchanged during communication

• Encoding: Process by which people select, insert messages in signals, and send
signals to others

• Signals: Specific verbal language and nonverbal behaviors that are encoded
when message sent

• Channels: Sensory system by which signals sent and messages retrieved

• Decoding: Process by which people receives signal from encoder and translates
those signals to meaningful messages

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Communicating in and between cultures

• Intercultural communication
comprises all forms of
communication both within and
between cultures.

• ‘Intercultural communication’
is individuals who are interacting
and it is they who bring their
culture’s way of thinking, feeling
and living into the interaction.

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Context

Context has to do primarily with how communication takes place when cultures
vary in context orientation. Here are several possible combinations:
 
1. High Context with High Context
2. Low Context with Low Context

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A model of communication

• When we communicate, we are unconsciously make use these

general terms:

1. knowledge (about the subject under discussion);

2. experience (in professional or individual terms);
3. norms (i.e. the norms of the society in which they live) and values;
4. assumptions and prejudices (with regard to each other).

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Proxemics and cultures

Proxemics = describe the study of how people

perceive their social and personal
space (Hall,1966)

Hall maintains that awareness of the differences

between cultures with regard to proxemics is crucial
when interacting with other cultures

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Proxemics and cultures

• Corraze (1988) reports on investigations made by Hall (1966, 1969) and
Watson (1970) into the differences between cultures with regard to the
notion of ‘personal space’.

• Research supports the hypothesis that if someone’s personal space is

violated, this can impair communication because of an increase in anxiety.

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Cross-cultural Values
Americans Japanese
 Freedom  Belonging

 Independence  Group harmony

 Self-reliance

 Equality
VS.  Collectiveness

 Age/seniority

 Individualism  Group consciousness

 Competition  Cooperation

 Efficiency  Quality

 Time  Patience

 Directness  Indirectness

 Openness  Go-between

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Edward T. Hall's Model

High-context cultures Low-context cultures

1. Long-lasting relationships 1. Shorter relationships
2. Exploiting context 2. Less dependent on context
3. Spoken agreements 3. Written agreements
4. Insiders and outsiders 4. Insiders and outsiders less
clearly distinguished clearly distinguished
5. Cultural patterns ingrained, 5. Cultural patterns change
slow change faster

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Low-context in business

i. Business before friendship

ii. Credibility through expertise & performance
iii. Agreements by legal contract
iv. Negotiations efficient
High-context in business
i. No business without friendship
ii. Credibility through relationships
iii. Agreements founded on trust
iv. Negotiations slow & ritualistic

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Forms of
communication in Click icon to add picture
business practice

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Culture and choice of
communication mode

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Culture and choice of communication mode

The choice of communication mode can be influenced by cultural factors. For
example:

i. US businessman would consider it quite normal to make a ‘cold call’, to phone a

stranger with whom he thinks he could do business.

ii. A Japanese businessman, on the other hand, would consider this to be intrusive
or aggressive, preferring instead to find a third party who can ‘vouch for your
credibility and make a formal introduction’.

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Face-to-face management relations

1. The first encounter

• The context of meetings can determine the nature of such encounters.

• For example, it will become apparent to any foreign visitor in a Japanese
setting that addressing a Japanese manager by his first name is
inappropriate.
• In another (Western) setting, first-name terms may be the norm and
insistence on using a title and surname may prove a barrier to establishing
trust and confidence in that setting.

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Face-to-face management relations

2. Conversational styles

Listening is, of course, a crucial element of any conversation:

Understanding not only what is being said but evaluating the meaning
of what is being said.

Taking turns to speak, rather than interrupting each other,

May certainly ease the process of understanding, as will asking

questions to check on understanding

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 Barriers in cross-cultural
management communication

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What are communication barriers?

1. Meta-communication and non-verbal behaviour.
 making gestures to complete messages when information is missing
(e.g. when gesturing to indicate someone’s height or size);

2. Non-verbal interaction
 must be careful not to assume that certain gestures have the same
meaning as in their own culture. In France, for example, pulling one’s
eyelid down with the forefinger means ‘I don’t believe you!’ In Italy,
however, the same gesture means something very different: ‘I’m
keeping an eye on you!’

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What are communication barriers?

3. Non-verbal communication barriers in business
 When using gestures, for example, the French are very expressive and
use the whole upper part of their body. The Dutch, on the other hand,
usually limit gestures to the use of their arms.

4. Silence can also be a cause of misunderstandings

 In Western cultures, silence marks pauses in a dialog. In Thailand, for
example, silence is not only a sign of respect, of agreement or
disagreement, but it is also highly appreciated as a style of speech

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What are communication barriers?

5. Identity as an obstacle to communication
• The conflicts of ideas, opinions and interpretations – also in the
interpersonal relations between individuals of different nationalities

6. Stereotyping
• When someone from that culture judges someone from another culture,
the tendency is for that person to do so using his/her norms and values. If
the person being judged does not conform to these in some way through
their behavior – then a negative judgement will probably be made.

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Other Barriers to Effective Intercultural communication

1. Assumptions of similarities
2. Language differences
3. Nonverbal misinterpretations
4. Preconceptions and stereotypes
5. Tendency to evaluate
6. High anxiety or tension

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Other Barriers to Effective Intercultural communication

1. Assumptions of similarities
• We need to keep in mind that communication is a uniquely human trait
shaped by culture.
• In fact, communication itself is a product of culture, and cultures vary in their
assumptions of similarities.

2. Language differences
• The use of words which may be highly effective at conveying meaning within a
particular culture often communicate unintended meanings across cultures.
• Add to this the nonverbal channel of communication and you have a recipe for
conflict and misunderstandings.

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Other Barriers to Effective Intercultural communication

3. Nonverbal misinterpretations
• This is the single most frequent cause of breakdowns in the communication
process across cultures.

4. Preconceptions and stereotypes

• These are natural and inevitable psychological processes that have a strong
influence on our perceptions and communications.

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Other Barriers to Effective Intercultural communication

5. Tendency to evaluate
• We make attributions about the behavior of others based on our own cultural
values.

6. High anxiety or tension

• While some degree of anxiety may be conducive to optimal performance, too
much anxiety or stress can lead to dysfunctional thought processes and
behaviors.

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Improving Intercultural Communication

Mindfulness and uncertainty reduction
o Mindfulness counterbalances uncertainty and anxiety
o Uncertainty reduction leads to focus on the content of signals and messages

Face
Should be mindful of face (public appearance of person) in collectivist culture

Emotion Regulation
Controlling negative emotions aroused from conflict is important

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END OF CHAPTER 7
THANK YOU
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