MODULE 2

Traditional building construction

 India is an invaluable repository of traditional
building practices that emerge as a response to its
diverse climatic, geological and socio-cultural
expressions.
 Threatened –By the unprecedented growth of the
construction industry
 Quest for a ‘modern’ and/ or ‘permanent’ habitat.
 Indigenous building approaches are loosing their
relevance - are being rapidly substituted-
ultimately proving unsustainable, both
economically as well as ecologically.
 Traditional-means or practices transferred
through generations which reveal the
attainment of a certain refinement over this
process of transfer.
 Construction practices-the wisdom derived
from techniques, art and craft prevalent in the
region.
 In India the region comprising Kerala is a place
where traditional built forms and design systems
have survived the impact of modernization.
 The indigenous architecture of Kerala has variety
of residential types, religious and cultural
institutional buildings.
 All traditional built forms are made with timber as
a dominant material along with laterite stone.
They are between 100 to 400 years old, depicting
an enriched grammar of design and construction,
embellished with craft and art skills.
 LIME
 Since antiquity, lime has served as one of the
most versatile binding materials for building
construction across the world.
 Buildings constructed in lime, that have
survived natural calamities and continuous
weathering for more than a millennium
throughout India are physical evidence of the
longevity and the durability of this material.
 Lime Practices in India as traditional building
practices were very extensive, precise and site
specific.
 Though lime is still being used as a building
material, its use is now largely limited to
construction in rural areas and conservation
practices.
 Lime was used in different modes during
construction for both structural and non-
structural purposes and protective plaster
layers and decorative works such as stucco,
profile plaster, painting and finishing work.
 Each form of its usage required different
specifications.
 For creating lime mortar, the most common
ingredients are mature lime putty and
aggregates
 The type of aggregates adopted for creation of lime
mortar depends upon its functional requirement,
characteristics, required texture and colour.
 Common aggregates used in lime mortars include
natural sands and gravels and materials such as
crushed shell, crushed rocks, particularly sandstone
and occasionally limestone and crushed brick.
 Aggregates play an important role in deciding the
colour of the resultant lime mortar.
 The traditional specifications and method of
preparation of lime mortar were original
 The variations in lime are found across
different regions in India .
 Kankar lime, also known as red lime was
widely used in construction. It contains 5% to
25% of clay and can produce a hydraulic lime
that hardens in the presence of water like
cement does.
 Shell lime is a popular binding material in
coastal areas where it is available abundantly.
 Lime can be used in dry form as commercial bag lime
 Putty form that is a tank slaking product for
conservation work.
 To prepare dry hydrated lime, known as ‘bag lime’,
the process of dry hydration requires a controlled
environment with specific amount of water .
 Wet slaking is carried out in slaking tanks with excess
of water to prepare a thick paste known as lime
putty .
 Presently, quick lime is also being slaked on a
commercial basis, in a controlled environment.
 LIME AS A FINISHING MATERIAL:
PLASTERS AND WASHES
 Lime -Finishing material is a practice that is still
continued in rural areas and small towns,
especially areas around lime kilns.
 Lime wash is essentially a dispersion of calcium
hydroxide particles in an aqueous solution.
 Lime wash like lime plastering, allows any
moisture that enters into the masonry to
evaporate again allowing the building to breathe.
 Wash requires annual maintenance as it easily
powders and wears off
 Vegetable glue is the most common type of organic additive
for lime wash gradually being replaced by synthetic gums .
 Lime Araish, Chettinad plaster and Madras plaster are the
highest quality traditional techniques of producing an
extremely smooth, glossy and crack free finish.
 These techniques produce glossy surfaces that resemble
polished marble.
 Chettinad and Madras plaster were developed in South
India and lime Araish flourished in Rajasthan and adjoining
states.
 All three techniques contain several layers of lime plaster of
varied consistencies and textures.
 Lime ARAISH
 The process of preparing the lime mix and its
application technique is very unique and different
from the lime araish practiced in the other regions
of India.
 Applied gently with care and precision these
plasters are a work of arT
 Before you obtain the final look, there are layers of
work that go below the silky exterior. There are
different coats of plaster underneath, each with a
different grade and function.
 Surkhi- This layer over the stone walls is the base coat made
using slaked lime, burned clay powder
(Surkhi), gogol (incense), natural gum, fenugreek seeds water,
jaggery,and kesule ke phul. 
 These ingredients are mixed and kept for months to ferment
before application.
 Zikki plaster- made using equal quantity of slaked lime and
marble dust, this plaster is the next layer which is the base for
the araish finish.
 Finishing layer- lime milk from six months matured putty is
taken and added with curd and kept to ferment for six more
months. This paste is applied over the base and then polished
using a special rounded stone till a glossy finish is attained.
 Coloured lime finish: This is done similar to araish, only
difference is that a pigment is added to achieve the desired
colours.
 The very common yellow paint is attained by mixing yellow
mud in the lime mix and applied with a brush in two coats.
 Mud Plaster– Chikni mitti or clayey soil 3 parts from the
banks of the ponds is mixed with 1 part fresh dung obtained
from the traditional breed of cow. These two are kneaded
and water is added to attain the right consistency for
application. This is hand applied in thick layers on stone
walls or mud walls to create interesting patterns. These walls
may be re plastered as and when required.
 Lime waste Plasters– Two parts of river sand is
added to one part of the powdered lime waste
and mixed well. To enhance the strength and
make it more workable, overnight soaked
methi (fenugreek) seed water and jaggery
water is added to this mix which is then used
to plaster the walls.
For plaster, one part of lime and
three parts of marble powder is
used. Lime of Raholi (near
Jaipur) is considered to be the
best for this purpose.
It is advisable to start
directly in the stone or brick
surface, but if the plaster on the
wall already exists, one has to
take out the 2 mm of that plaster
and built a fresh layer on it.
After the plaster has been
smoothened by Jhava it can be
left for a year or so to see if it
becomes an integrated part of
the wall
 For fresco painting, the preparation of lime is very
important.
 In a large sized earthen pot or cement tank or even a drum
containing water, limestone is slowly dropped in, which
slowly dissolves.
 On the next day, a little curd and jaggery is added to purify
the solution. This lime can be kept for months together
provided one takes out the caustic layer of this water daily.
 Water is constantly added to the lime to keep it wet .
 Old wet lime is best for permanency. Similarly, for best
effect, Ghinki (marble powder) is always preferably used
for fresco plaster to get better whiteness.
 After a year or so, work begins on the wall with
proper soaking of the surface with water and
keeping it wet for a whole day.
 After applying the plaster, it is fixed with
batakara. Then it is ready for final thin coating
of lime.
 Pure coating of lime softens the wall and gives
a finished effect. Ghoti (Agate) polished stone
is used for achieving the shining effect. After
this the wall is finally ready for painting.
 While following the Arayash technique, only that much
work should be started which can be completed in a
day. Work done in dry plaster is never stable; one has to
work on wet wall for better permanenc e.
 To make the work easier on large walls, the painting has
to be divided into smaller segments. Every day, fresh
wall surface must be prepared for doing the day’s work.
 Of the two varieties of fresco,fresco buono is the wet
process while the work can be done on dry Arayash
wall with the help of some other medium like gum and
egg as binder.
 Natural earth, stone and mineral colours are most
suitable for fresco painting since these do not react
with lime and are perma nent.
 Basco’s khadia and pure old purified lime is used for
white and indigo/ Neel is used for blue. Terre verte
for green , red and yellow stone for red and yellow,
hirmich and geru for brown and Indian red, lamp
black kajal for black, ramraj for yellow, while sindoor
and hinglu for vermillion and orange shades.
 Variety in shades is achieved with by mixing the
colou
 Tools:
 The tools are
important for making
wall paintings. The
use of the right ones
correctly is very
important to get a
good wall painting
 Traditionally artists used to make their own brushes
from squirrel and mongoose hairs.
 Materials for painting
 Lime.
 Lime is the most significant component of the plaster.
Quick lime is bought from the market and slaked with
water. The longer the lime is slaked better will be the
results. Caustic impurities settle on top of the container
in which the lime is kept and have to be removed on a
daily basis . The lime too has to be stirred daily to allow
for better slaking. This slaked lime is then sieved and
collected for use.
 Jaggery:
 Jaggery is added to the lime when it is being
slaked. It helps in removal of impurities
 Buttermilk:
 Buttermilk plays a similar role to that of jaggery.
 Marble Powder:
 Marble powder is the filler used in the plaster.
Marble powder is specifically used due to its
whiteness as its usage allows the final plaster to
be completely white.
 Cement:
 It is mixed with river sand for the base layer.
 Khor:
 It is baked clay and is used traditionally in Rajasthan
along with the river sand to provide the base layer
 River sand:
 It is used in the base layer and is used to provide a stable,
strong base to the plaster
 Dry Coconut:
 The dry coconut is used to make oil which can be used for
extra luster and to protect the painting from the weather.
 The pigments:
 The pigments used should be of the highest
quality and should have been purified and
processed well.
 Geru (red ochre):
 It is an earth pigment which has a red colour
 Hirmich:
 It is a dark brown colour.
 Khadia:
 It is an earth pigment which has a white colour.
 Ramraj (yellow ochre):
 It is a yellow earth pigment
 Terre verte:
 It is a green earth pigment
 Neel-It is a blue colour, earlier natural indigo
was used but due to lack of availability
commercially produced ultramarine is used for
blue. It is used with a little lime when
applying.
 Lamp black-It is a black pigment. It is obtained
by burning sesame oil and collecting its soot.
Its application is done with a little lime.
 Hansraj Hingloo (Cinnabar):
 It is a mineral orange-red pigment.
 All these pigments are found in the dry form.
The pigments are ground with water and the
impurities removed before they are finally
used. Cinnabar is not ground but is rubbed to
get the colour.
 Chettinad plaster
 Lime plastering technique native to Chettinad,
Tamil Nadu.
 Major ingredients are Stone lime, Shell lime
(binders) and River sand (aggregate). stone
powder (quartz) is also used.
 Admixtures like egg-whites and vajjram (tallow) is
also added. It is known for soft texture, bright
colour and reflective glazed surfaces. This
involves rubbing the surface with stone by
craftsman to attain a very smooth finish and this
requires no other treatment methods.
 Madras plaster
 Mixture of eggwhite, shell,lime,sugar and
coconut husk was applied on the walls and
then polished smooth with crystal stones.
 The use of lime was suddenly discontinued in
mainstream construction after the invention of
Portland cement in early 20th century.
 Unfortunately, due to gaps in traditional
knowledge systems and improper usage of
lime, often new interventions do not match the
original quality and application process and
therefore have a limited lifespan.
 In the Indian context, there is a strong tradition of
using organic additives with lime mortar, the
selection of which depends upon local climatic
conditions and the functional requirements of lime
mortar.
 Some commonly used organic additives are jute fibre,
pulses, milk products, gur (jaggery), seeds, aloe vera
and fruit pulp. Jute fibres are the most common
organic additives used for plastering. Jute helps in
reducing the shrinkage caused by carbonation
process and gives tensile strength to lime.
 From the northern Malabar region to the
southern Travancore area of Kerala, there is an
unusual homogeneity and continuity in the
traditional architecture with sophisticated
articulation in construction methods and
techniques, use of materials, roofing system
and craftsmanship.
 The specifie cIimatic conditions,
 Abundance of wood,
 The unique structures resulted in the
development of distinct features that
characterize the traditional architecture of
Kerala
 A variety of materials available in different
regionof Kerala was used in vasthu
construction, making use of their structural
properties.
 The primitive bamboo construction formed the
basis for later timber work. The skill in making
mud walls developed into more complex
masonry skills.
 Thatching was replaced by by tiles and later by
metal c1adding.
 The science of timber craft in Kerala known as
Thatchushasthram is synonymous with the
traditional science of architecture.
 In the early period, timber was the chief
material used in house building. Timber walled
houses represent the earliest tradition in
residential architecture over the entire region of
Kerala.
 Wood as a building material stood first in terms of
availability, workability and durability.
 The structural properties of wood were well
studied and were made use of more than any other
material, in construction.
 The structural forces working on different elements
of the building such as pillars, rafters, beams, nails
etc. were very well understood, and the appropriate
timber was chosen to make each element.
 All the joints were made by means of wooden nails
and pegs.
 The joinery details were developed to such
refinement that the joints could be assembled
firmly and disassembled easily.
 Wood suited for construction underwent strict
selection that trees affected by lightning, wind
turbulence, and those dried up, containing sap,
bearing flowers and fruits etc. were avoided.
 Houses in northern Travancore represents a
high order of wooden craft in architecture
 Construction techniques

Various timber joints used in the palace

Tim b e r J o ine ry De t ails

Rid g e
Rid g e
Ra ft e r

Ra fte r

J o ine r y d e t a ils a t Rid g e S e c t io n t h r o ug h a c o lumn

A Ra ft e r
Ut ha ra p p a d i

Nir a (p la nks ) Kila

Ve r t ic a l Timb e r J o ine ry De t ails

A A
C hit t ut hara
Tie o r Na d ump ad i
Ut ha r a (wa ll p lat e )
B
B B A

Ara p p ad i Wa ll
o r Ke e zhp a d i
W ed g e A
B B B
A
A A
Nir a p a la ka B hit hi (Wo o d e n wa ll) D e t a ils a t Ut ha ra
Ho r izo nt a l Timb e r J o ine ry De t a ils

All the wooden members are prefabricated and assembled.

The assemblages were either vertical joints or horizontal joints.

Complex joinery systems – arukuduma

39
 traditional science of architecture is grounded
in principles of measurements and proportions.
 From the ancient times, acharyas or master
craftsmen found and organized simple and
convenient dimensional systems to accurately
measure all sizes.
 The system of dimensioning can be broadly
 classified into two -- anupadhikam or
proportional and kevalam or absoJute
dimensional system
Construction methods and practices developed
by the craftsmen

Practices in carpentry
1. All the rafters are placed with head up
and bottom down (according to the
grain).
2. Timber pieces of same length are not
joined together.
3. The top end of a timber piece was
always joined to the bottom end of
the other piece in joinery.
4. For pillars the bottom of timber piece
was kept down and the head up in
vertical position.

41
Construction methods and practices developed
by the craftsmen
5. Same type of joinery detail was
used everywhere in one
building.
6. New timber was joined to new
and old to old without fail. Only
in very rare cases old timber is
fixed to new ones.
7. Wooden pins once used for
construction were never reused
as per traditional practice.
8. Male Timber piece was fixed to
another male piece, & female to
female. Only in unavoidable
situation male & female timber
were joined together. But a
male or a female piece was
never fixed to a neutral piece.

42
 High level of craftsmanship
and building skill based on
Tachusastram
Tachusastram – science of
carpentry
Erected with strict adherence to the science of
traditional architecture
Legend of Perumthachan –
myth? – knowledge system

43
 VASTUSASTRA

 According to Indian mythology, Brahma the supreme

creator is the primary source of all knowledge.

 All the four Vedas originated from Brahma – rgveda,

yajurveda, samaveda and atharvaveda.

 Sthapatyaveda, the upaveda of atharvaveda gives the

knowledge of building science.

 Sthapatyaveda deals with mathematics (ganita), material

science (dravya vigyanam), drawing and painting
(chitra), iconography (silpasastra) and principles of
building construction, all of which form the basis of
vastuvidya. 44
 VASTUSASTRA
Indian system
 The word “vastu” is
derived from the
Sanskrit root of “vas”
which means “to live” or
“to dwell”.
 vastu – ‘vasati praaninah
yatra”.
 Concept of Prakriti and
Purusha

45
Identity of Kerala Architecture
in form
Vastusastra + Tachusastra

ridge roof pitched at angles

between 30 to 40 degrees placed
over low walls forms the main
visual and functional element

In the earlier times the roof were

covered with thatch which was
replaced by tiles and later by
metal cladding especially for
religious structures.
46
 The timber houses in
Kerala especially in
the southem region
were composed of
walls built of frames
and panels called nira.
 These buildings were
constructed almost
entirely of timber from
plinth level upwards
consisting of wooden
posts, beams, rafters,
collars and panels.
 The beams at plinth level
were supported on
granite pillars about
50cm x 50cm x 150cm
embedded in the ground.
49
 These granite supports were provided at aIl wall
junctions and at 1.5 to 2m intervals along the length
of the walls where required. The space in between
was built up to the plinth level with bricks or laterite.
 Above the wooden plinth beam were wooden pillars
at all wall junctions and at intervals along the walls.
 Between these pillars were wooden planks joined to
each other by tongue and groove joints.
 Usually these planks were vertically divided by an
ornate horizontal member called aranjganam which
ran around the exterior walls
 The pitched roof resting on top of the greevam
formed the shikharam.
 It was the wall plate or varotharam that attached
the entire roof onto greevam
 On top of the wall plate was fixed by means of
wooden pegs, a secondary plate called
chuttutharam (It was onto this chuttutharam that
therafters called as kazhukol sloped down from the
ridge and were seated
Six limbs of a building

52
 At the ridge, the rafters from either
side of the slope met.

 To this joint was hooked a hanging

beam called monthayam.
 As the rafters reached the end of
monthayam they were arranged radially
to be fixed together on to the koodam,an
apex pinnacle.
 There were even number of rafters on
aIl four sides.
 Horizontal tie members called
valabentham were fixed onto these rafters
below the ridge and a square section
called vala or collar pin was driven
through holes in all these members
Roof structure – is made out of timber with
thatch or tiles laid over.
Uttaram (wall plate)
Kazhukol (Lupa – rafter)
Monthayam (ridge)
Vala bandham (collar)
Kutam
Mukhappu (Gable)
 This vala which sewed
together aIl the rafters as
well as tie beams,
ensured the firmness and
rigidity of a triangular
frame and held the
members from sliding.
 Similar to vala at the lower
end of the rafters also there
were pinning members
called vamada that tied
them tight
 Vasthushasthra describes on the availability, processing and utility of 7 types
of materials.
 These 7 materials were shila or stone, ishtika or brick, dharu or wood,
 mrithsna or mud, mrilloshtam or ceramics, sudha or mortar and lohakam or
metals.
 Factors such as availability, workability, strength and durability
decided the ideal materials suited for the respective region or Iocality.
 The quality and uniqueness of traditional construction was brought
about by the expertise attained in the application of these materials by
trial and error.
 The selection of the appropriate material for the right application was
another aspect of this process. Hence classification of materials was
made into 7 general types, within which came the multitude of
varieties found in various places.
 Laterite or vettukallu was the most popular stone
used for building in Kerala.
 These are soft but sturdy stones found below
the top soil and are red in color due to the
presence of iron oxides in them.
 These iron oxides, when exposed, undergo
chemical change and become hard and durable
in due course of time.
 Hence laterite was left exposed without plaster
finish.
 In vernacular, it is called as “chenkallu”,
“Ishtikkallu”, “cheekkallu”, “vettukallu” etc .
 Usually laterite stones used for residential buildings
were cut to a size of volume 12 angulam x 8 angulam
x 6 angulam or of a square shape of volume 12 angulam x
12 angulam x 6 angulam. In special cases the size became
10 angulam x 12 angulam x 14 angulam. The walls were
usually of thickness 8 angulam but sometimes extended
to a maximum of 24 angulam
 1.763 centimetres
 Laterite was used in every part of Khmer
architecture. It was mainly used as the
foundation of every monument; in some parts
of the walls of sandstone or brick monuments;
and as walls and roofs in minor monuments.
 However, laterite had never been used as
structural members that supported tensile
forces such as lintels and beams.
 ORAAYAPPANI or
ORACHUKETTU. Masonry
used in old temple
construction of Northern
Kerala, which uses
“Oraayam”, very thin layer of
mortar prepared from locally
available natural materials.
 Oraayappani is a system
known and shared among
only a very small, but high
class of “Mesthiris” (masons),
peculiar to a part of Northern
Kerala.
 PREPARATION OF ORAAYAM
 a. POOZHI (sand) Mixed with Kummayam to
prepare the base of Oraayam Quantity –1 ½
Chatti (one and half bowl)
 b. KUMMAYAM (lime) Basic component of
Oraayam. Gives white color to the mix.
Quantity – 1 Chatti (full bowl) (Kummayam to
Poozhi (lime to sand) ratio must be 1: 1.5)
 c. KULIRMAV PASHA (Gum) Binder of
Kummayam and poozhi mix. Added daily for a
week. Quantity – 1 montha (aprox. 1 litre).
 d. THETTANKURU KOOTTU (Clearing nut mix) Adds temper to
Oraayam. Used according to availability Quantity – ½ montha
(medium cup).
 e. VELLAM (Jaggery) Added for setting of Oraayam Quantity – 1
full steel bucket (medium)
 SUBSIDIARY MATERIALS FOR THETTANKURU (clearing nut).
EGG WHITE Not used in temple construction.
KOOVALAKKAAYA.
 GOAT BLOOD Used for non-temple structures. UNNAKKAYA
Silk cotton
 . PANACHINGA Malabar ebony, Commiphora mukul.
KUNTHIRIKKAM.
 Finally obtained Oraayam is light yellow in colour and has
pleasant odour.
 PROCESS.

 Poozhi- Kummayam mix is poured

into a ground pit for fermentation
for one week by pouring Kulirmav
gum daily.
 Two people mix the ingredients in a
tank well using an Olakka. Once the
mixing is done the tank is covered
using coconut leaf mat for
fermentation. The tank is lined with
lime plaster.
 APPLICATION OF ORAAYAM.
 STEP 1 The Oraayam is first
applied on the laterite stone which
is placed horizontal , using a Kathi
(plastering trowel).
 .
 STEP 2 Another laterite stone is placed over
this fine layer of Oraayam and rubbed along
the direction of wall by two labourers
 STEP 3 Once Oraayam is evenly distributed,
the laterite is placed in postion for setting.
 The porous surface of the Laterite makes the
bonding easier. In addition to it rubbing
between blocks ensures proper adhesion,
creating even surfaces of contact, making a
clean joint.
 TECHNIQUE 2 THORAKU

 “Thoraku”, one of the best existing example which

exhibits the possibilities of such a local material.
“Thoraku is the local term used for the corbelled
roof system, which is only used in temples
 Less popularity due to time consuming and need of
skilled labor. Since the size of stone is calculated
from the design of structure, it is an important stage
to design the stone for the roof construction. It took
years to cut pre designed stone for thoraku in
ancient times. Still used by some experts in
Northern Kerala.
 Dividing the plan into
octagonal frame. • Laying of
stone according to design.
 Each stone laid according to
the design and Number of
stones get gradually decreased
in each layer, not in every
layer but in an even order with
respect to the decreasing of
inner circumference of octagon
 At last a keystone (Pookallu) is
used to lock the entire system,
by applying vertical force.
 ARCHES & LINTELS

 Lintels are structural elements

used to bear vertical loads,
placed above the joineries in
order to reduce the vertical
force acting on them and also
for the future modifications.
Masonry materials like brick,
laterite, stone etc. are used for
construction of different types
of lintels. Flat arch lintels,
semicircular arches, elliptical
arches etc. made of laterite
were common in Kerala.
 Process

 • 1.Voussoirs are placed on the

basis of design. Each stone is
placed by providing supports.
Since the size of arch is small,
Shaping of stone is needed.
 2. In this stage the keystone is
erected between wall and arch,
where wall provides the
horizontal thrust for locking the
stone
 3. Then remaining wall is
constructed which apply load on
the arch. This keeps the arch
permanently locked between
walls.
Craftsmanship
 Defects in construction techniques
 Building defects is a major issue that needs attention.
 When buildings fails to function as it should we
must immediately seek its determination
 Defects can be structural and non structural
 Structural defect means-any defect in a structural
element of the building due to defective design,
faulty workmanship or defective material or maybe a
combination of these.
 Structural defects can occur over time due to
deterioration, wear and tear, overloading and poor
maintenance
 Non structural defects are defects in non
structural elements of a building
 Defects are dampness, plaster cracks etc
 Foundation-Cracks in foundation could be
improper soil analysis,inappropriate site
selection and use of defective materials.
 Foundations are that part of a building which
distributes the loads from roofs,floors and
walls on to the earth below.
 Major factor in the permanence of the building
is the sufficiency of its foundations
 Ground movement is not uncommon.
 Geologically it occurs continuously and in extreme cases
is earth quakes
 Can be induced by man made activities too like mining
etc.
 Geology of the ground upon which a building stands
and which carries all the dead and superimposed loads
can have short and long term effects.
 Ground movements must be considered normal for all
buildings with long life but for important historic
buildings it is necessary to record these movements as
preventive active will have to be taken
 Common issues-Abstraction of ground
water,mining subsidience,Tunnelling, drainage
 These are gradual geological movements which
affect water table and underground drainage
patterns
 Heavy buildings near an historic building can
alter the ground stresses
 Many buildings settle quite dramatically
during construction-Eg is Leaning Tower of
Pisa
 Success of building foundations depends upon the
nature of the soil on which it is built.
 Soils are infinetly variable so each problem of
foundation failure would vary.
 Cohesive, non cohesive etc

 If inspection reveals cracks and fractures that can be

attributed to ground settlement-Probability is
stabilization of foundations will be necessary
 In situ tests and careful examinations will have to be
done.
 Movements of buildings must be measured and
recorded.
 Inclination and deformation of the building to be
studied for as long as possible
 Inclinations are measured with plumb bobs,optical
plumb bobs, theodolites and inclinometers.
 Ground slopes should be carefully recorded near
leaning towers and walls
 Ground water variations at different geological
levels should be checked with Piezometers.
 Source all resources for drawings, measured drawings to
be made recording all cracks and deformations
 Chemical action of salts in the ground needs to be checked.
 If walls rest on wooden piles –Important-Decay of the
material due to several reasons
 Change in water table level very critical-Can change the
bearing capacity of the soil
 Raising of water table can soften clay
 Lowering may cause drying and shrinkage of clay or
washing away of fine gravel etc.
 Bearing capacity of the soil of the affected building is to be
studied
 Structural interventions
 From inspection of building and its environment
and from several tests an assessment of the causes
can be identified by experts.
 Underground soil may be improved-Chemical
grouting
 Foundations can be improved by enlargement or
deepening or use of levers and anchorages and
containment.
 Enlargement-provide increased area in
reinforcemnet,needle thro the wall,prestress the
new foundations using flat hydraulic jacks.
 Deepening-Underpinning –removal of
defective footings-but modern methods
including pressure piles, vertical bored piles etc
can be done
 To reduce vibrations bored piles are done
 Levers- To apply a backturning moment and
thus minimise foundation failures on the
opposite sides
 Walls
 Each geographical region and period-own
charecteristic way of building walls
 Each type of wall has different preservation
and repair issues
 Ruins can be informative-shows the nature of
structural systems, the collapse pattern of a
wall,How it ultimately failed and thus how a
similar type of wall should be reconstituted
and strengthened
 Most stone faced mediveal and Renaissance walls are
filled with random stone rubble set in a mass of mortar
between the two outer faces stone ashlar or plaster.
 They were raised one course at a time.
 If casing is defective-Runaway failure.For strength and
durability quality of mortar matters which represents
30% of the volume.
 To preserve wall-Protection against internal erosion by
penetrating rain is important.
 When lime is used in thick walls it may not carbonate
and set properly in the centre of the wall.
 Load bearing wall is the commonest type of
building construction element
 Ranges from large palaces to churches, mosques,
farm houses.
 Defects could be due to thrust from defective
roofs,more likely to be from defective
foundations and thermal stresse.
 Defects due to deterioration of binding material
like lime or cement,defects due to moisture,decay
and aging or rotting of wood reinforcements etc..
 Thin mortar joints may cause cracking and spalling of individual
stones.
 When thin mortar gets overstressed and may break up into powder
and tend to fall out of the joints
 Shear cracks on walls-from settlements
 Tensile cracks-Inherent design defects
 Diagonal cracks indicate shear generally from unequal settlements.
 Walls faced with ashlar and filled with rubble become fissured in
time and are liable to damage from vibration
 If joints in the external facing are fine and blocks are large there is a
danger that core will consolidate leaving the skins to carry the
loads in full with resulting pressure cracks, spalling and even
bulging.
 Failure in timber systems is not so likely to be due to structural
causes so much as to the decay of the material itself
 Rotting of embedded beams in foundations can cause cracking of the
walls like any other defect in the foundations
 The effect of decay of timber roofs on load bearing walls below can
be disastrous.
 The rotting of one end of roof beams can cause multiple collapse
because the other end of the falling beam may lever sound masonry
out of position.
 In mixed structures wooden elements are liable to shrinkage in all
dimensions and also are vulnerable to decay from fungi and insects.
 Joints of the wooden elements are the weakest parts and if these fail
there is a danger of thrusts developing on the walls which they were
not designed to resist
 General repairs
 Walls can be repaired by cutting out the defective parts piece by piece
 When repairing a very thick wall it is often possible to do half a
section but care must be taken to ensure that the two halves are
properly bonded or tied together later
 Portland cement pointing should never be used for stone as it is too
hard, too rigid and too strong being too impervious promotes frost
damage
 The aesthetic aim with stonework is generally different from that
with brick as the pointing should be as close in colour and texture to
the stone as possible.
 With brick work final colour and texture of the mortar is even more
important as up to 30 % or 40 % of the area of the wall is affected
 Buttresses is the last resort since it changes the appearance of the
building
 Spanning elements
 Arches, Vaults, Domes most common features
 Usually made of sun dried bricks,Fired bricks
or stones with different types of mortar
 Majority withstood earthquakes without
sustaining major damages.Examples like
Pantheon,St Peter’s dome etc
 Completely in compression without having
tensile stress
 Masonry was the ideal material to fit these
shapes in the past
 Masonry is a heterogenous material
 Perfomance would depend upon the behaviour of the
constiuent materials and the interaction of the materials as an
assemblage
 1.Earth.Availability,little or no experience required,deep
cultural and social traditions
 Most favoured in arid regions-Very good insulation against
hot and cold climates
 Issues-Cracking, rising salt and damp damages,termite
attacks,erosion etc.
 Adobe and sun dried most common type.Small sized vaulted
roofs made with sun dried bricks and mud mortar-as early as
4000 BC –WITH bitumen mortar
 Fired brick is manufactured by mixing clay raw
material with water and by firing the mixture at
high temperatures.
 In fact, drying and firing processes are crucial
parameters to determine the final properties of
bricks.
 Soluble salts and other impurities are one of the
most important factors of brick decay.
 Poorly fired bricks lose their strength as their area
and volume gradually decrease through scaling,
and wear and tear
 Stones
 Strong stone units and narrow mortar joints
were highly recommended to be used for true
arches,vaults and domes
 This can be made possible by precise cutting,
bedding centering,placing and pointing.Native
stones were also used for moderate spans.This
led to larger proportion of mortar along the
arch ring to distribute the bearing forces
between the stones within the arch ring
 Mortar
 Binds the blocks and transmits the compression
forces
 Very important when vaults and domes are
built with the corbelled technique where
quality of mortar is essential to stick the blocks
on to each other.
 Traditional masonry buildings can be subjected
to various environmental and loading
conditions depending on their use and
geographic location
 Humidity
 All kinds of masonry buildings are more or less
susceptible to rainwater or rising humidity.
 To prevent the deterioration of structural
elements in long term, water from roof or
underground should be controlled
 Soil movements
 Soil movements and deformations can disturb the
equilibrium and cause instability.
 To minimize the effects of this problem, loads need to
be distributed uniformly. An example of such practices
can be seen in the Pantheon. The cylindrical wall of the
Pantheon contains within its thickness a series of arches
which inside correspond to niches and empty spaces.
 The Roman has used these arches, which in reality are
“relieving arches” built inside the solid masonry walls,
to influence the soil settlements during the construction,
shrinkage and viscous phenomena
 In vaulted structures, a convex pattern of
settlements produces an outwards rotation of
the supporting walls which adds to that of the
thrust of vaulted roof
 In corbelled arches such rotations can create
severe collapse but in true arches outward
displacement of the supports can cause
slippage between the blocks
 Insufficient material strength
 In order to have a structural system that carries loads for a
long period, the construction materials should retain their
strength as they go through freezing-thawing cycles,
humidity and temperature variations, and other harsh
climate and environmental conditions

 For arches, vaults, and domes, the properties of the mortar

 Deterioration of mortar binding the masonry units,
especially poor quality mortar including mud or low
quality lime, can reduce the strength and stiffness of the
roof considerably
 Analysis of traditional masonry vaulted
structures.
 Four main assumptions-
 Masonry units have infinite capacity in
compression
 No capacity in tension
 Infinitely rigid
 Friction high enough between voussiers so that
they cannot slide over one another
 Arches
 The arch can have many architectural and structural
functions
 Structurally, arches are the elements that span a horizontal
distance carrying its own weight and other loads totally or
mainly by internal compression.
 Arches can be classified according to geometrical shape,
which is one of the most important parameters and essential
to determine their structural behavior. Circular, elliptical,
pointed, basket-handle, and four-centered arches were
among the most widely used in traditional buildings.
 As a geometrical shape, the arch is a fundamental element
since it forms the basis for the evolution of vaults and
domes.
 Although the masonry units have minor tensile
stresses, the structure naturally tends to
accommodate the small displacements in the
abutments due to differential settlements or the
shrinking and wear and tear of mortar through
the formation of the three hinges in arches
 Using the corbelled arch technique,
overlapping blocks are usually placed on the
top of each others, looking much like a series of
steps.
 To design the vertical supports upon which an
arch rests, it is important to define their thrust
lines.
 For simple symmetrical loads, the thrust line will
pass down the middle of the vertical support

 Non symmetrical loads, the vertical supports on

which the arch is supported is needed to
accommodate the horizontal thrust that is
generated
 Vaults
 A vault is a one-way roofing system that transfers loads
by arch action through a single curved plane to
continuous supports.
 The stresses within the vault are primarily compressive.
 Traditional vaults were constructed in different shapes
and forms.
 They present different static behavior according to their
geometry, masonry strength, construction techniques.
 Barrel vault (semicircular), groined vault, cloister vault,
pointed vault, segmental vault, catenary vault, and
ribbed vault are among the mostly used ones in
traditional buildings.
 As a result of lateral forces, the movement of the
springers is always the factor that creates major
damage or is the cause of collapse.
 Such failures are usually due to excessive
deformations and lack of tie beams at the level of
the roofs
 It is important to have solid massive wall since
the existence of large openings destabilises vaults.
 Buttresses to be used if large openings are to be
given
 Domes
 The dome is a structural form, which distributes loads to
supports through a doubly curved plane.
 They are usually designed to be capable of supporting applied
loads without large deflection and excessive displacements.
 Similar to arches, domes develop internal meridional forces that
transfer loads to their supports.
 Masonry domes were constructed in different shapes and forms.
 They present different static behavior according to their
geometry, masonry strength, construction methods, and so forth.
 Hemispherical, pointed, cloister, segmental, and faceted domes
are among the mostly used in traditional buildings. They were
produced in the form of single-shell, double-shell, and triple-shell
domes
 The early domes were supported by placing them directly on
bearing walls-Eg pantheon
 Square plan with 4 walls, 4 columns or 8 or 12 columns is the
most popular one
 Problem with dome is transition from the round dome on to
the square building
 Three ways of solving that were using squnich, pendentive, a
belt just beneath the dome
 The most important structural element to make a dome safe is
the ring beam at its bottom which helps to limit the
horizontal displacements and the tensile hub stresses
 Collapse of a dome mostly follows the failure of its
supporting walls or pillars
 Tie rods
 In traditional buildings, wooden or steel tie rods are used to
take care of any possible tensile stresses developed as the
results of seismic forces or any excessive lateral
displacements
 the uses of tie-rods contribute to guarantee an efficient
connection between the constituting parts of the structure and
take care of any extra thrust induced on the bearing walls
 The tie-rods should be placed, preferably, at the level of the
bearing (in arches and vaults), or along parallel circles (in
domes
 They should be installed with a slight degree of pre-stressing,
in order to guarantee that they will always be under tension