Chapter 2: Performance Characteristics of Instruments

By Tesfaye M.
Electrical Measurements and Instrumentation
(Introduction to Instrumentation Engineering)
October 2019.

Debre Markos University

ደብረ ማርቆስ ዩኒቨርስቲ
Debre Markos Institute of Technology
ደብረ ማርቆስ ቴክኖሎጂ ኢንስቲትዩት
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Goals of this Chapter
• Differentiate the difference between steady state and transient behaviors of
instruments
• They describe performance characteristics of an instruments
• Identify terminologies used to define static and dynamic performance

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Overview
• Static characteristics
• Dynamic characteristics

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Performance Characteristics
· Type of instrument to be used is decided on the characteristics required
· E.g., a  0.5oC accuracy instrument is allowable for human body (feeling)
while it may be useless for an instrument in a control system

· So for selection, the performance characteristics of measuring instruments must be

known
· Various terminologies are used to define the performance

· Instrument performance characteristics is generally broken down into two, namely

1. Static characteristics
2. Dynamic characteristics

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Static Characteristics
· Static characteristics describes performance of instruments under constant or
slowly-varying input

· Concerned with steady-state reading, i.e., when the instrument settles down

· Since static characteristics affects the dynamic behavior, the overall performance
is then judged by a semi-quantitative superposition of the static and dynamic
characteristics

· Terminologies used to define static characteristics

· Range, span, linearity, sensitivity, threshold, resolution, error, etc. . . .

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Range and Span
· Range: Is the limits between which the input can vary

· Range of an instrument defines the minimum and maximum values of a

quantity that the instrument is designed to measure, i.e.,
· Input range – Imin , Imax
· Output range – Omin , Omax

· E.g., a resistance thermometer sensor might be quoted as having a range

of 00C to +8000C
· Span: Is the maximum variation
· Input span – Imax – Imin
· Output span – Omax – Omin

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Linearity
· The output reading of an instrument is linearly proportional to the quantity being
measured
· Input output relation is governed by a straight line

· One desirable property of instruments

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Sensitivity

· Ratio of the change in output to the

corresponding change in input under
steady-state conditions
· Is the slope of the input-output
curve
· Indicates by how much the output of
an instrument changes when the
quantity being measured changes
by a given amount

· The sensitivity can be linear or

non-linear

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Threshold and Resolution
· Threshold
· If the instrument’s input is increased very gradually from zero, there will be
some minimum value below which no output change can be detected
· This minimum value defines the threshold of the instrument
· Manufacturers specify it as an absolute value or percentage of full scale
reading

· Resolution
· Smallest possible increment discernible between measured values
· Or the minimum input change that can be detected by the system
· As the term is used, higher resolution means smaller increments
· An instrument with a five-digit display (say, 0.0000 to 9.9999) is said to
have higher resolution than an identical instrument with a three-digit display
(say, 0.00 to 9.99)

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Hysteresis
· This is an effect of producing different readings when the measured quantity is
approached from above or below
· Instrument will not have the same output for the same input in repeated trials
· It may be the result of mechanical friction, or thermal effects
Curve B
Variable decreasing
Output
variable

Curve A-Variable increasing

Maximum
output hysteresis

Measured variable

Maximum input
hysteresis

Dead Space

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Accuracy
· The maximum expected difference in magnitude between measured and true
values
· Accuracy of an instrument is a measure of how close the output reading of
the instrument is to the true/correct value
· Equivalently, accuracy is the extent to which the value indicated by a
measurement system or element might be wrong

· Often expressed as a percentage of full scale reading

· E.g., A 1% accuracy over a full scale pressure reading of 100 kPa will be
accurate within 1 kPa

· Plus or minus inaccuracies are also termed as measurement uncertainties

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Precision

· Indicates the ability of an instrument to reproduce a certain reading of a constant

input with a given accuracy

· If no reproducibility, then the instrument is said to have a drift

· E.g., for a true value of 100 V, if measured values are 104, 103, 105, 100,
105, then the accuracy is 5 V

· Precision is also defined as the maximum deviation from mean

· In the above example, mean = 103.4 so that max. deviation = 1.6 V
· Hence precision is 1.6%

· High precision measurement instrument gives a small spread of readings and

vice versa

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Accuracy vs. Precision

Low precision High precision High precision

Low accuracy Low accuracy High accuracy

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System Disturbances (or Environmental Effects)
· Zero drift or bias or interfering input
· Describes the effect where the zero reading (or intercept) of an instrument is
modified by a change in the ambient conditions

· Causes a constant error that exists over the full range of measurement of the
instrument

· Sensitivity drift or scale factor drift or modifying input

· Defines the amount by which an instrument’s sensitivity varies as ambient
conditions change
· It is quantified by sensitivity drift coefficient

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Sensitivity to Disturbance
· Instrument’s specifications are
valid only under controlled
conditions of temperature, pressure etc.…
· As variations occur in the ambient
temperature etc., certain static
instrument characteristics change
· E.g., sensitivity can be affected
by zero and sensitivity drift
as shown in the figure
· Sensitivity to disturbance measures
the magnitude of this change

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Sensitivity to Disturbance

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Error
· Two types of errors, namely systematic and random errors
· Systematic error: Cause repeated readings to be in error by the same amount, i.e.,
consistent error signs
· Due to instrument short coming and environmental effects
· Related to calibration errors and can be eliminated by correct calibration
· Accuracy is related to such type of errors
· Random errors: Caused by random electronic fluctuations in instruments,
unpredictable behavior of the instrument, influences of friction, etc.…
· Such errors are related to precision
· Characterized by positive and negative errors
· Random fluctuations usually follow certain statistical distribution

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Error
· Difference between result of measurement and true value of the quantity being
measured
Error  xm  x true

x m  x true
Percentage error   100%
x full

· E.g., If the measured value is 10.1 when the true value is 10.0, the error is +0.1. If
the measured value is 9.9 when the true value is 10.0, the error is-0.1.

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Tolerance
· A term that is closely related to accuracy and defines the maximum error that is to
be expected in some value
· When used correctly, tolerance describes the maximum deviation of a
manufactured component from some specified value
· E.g., crankshafts are machined with a diameter tolerance quoted as so many
microns (10-6m)
· Electric circuit components such as resistors have tolerances of perhaps 5%
· One resistor chosen at random from a batch having a nominal value
1000 ohm and tolerance 5% might have an actual value anywhere
between 950 ohm and 1050 ohm

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Overview
· Static characteristics
· Dynamic characteristics

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Dynamic Characteristics of Instruments
· Describe behaviors between the time an input quantity changes its value and the
time when the instrument output attains a steady value
· Are useful when the input signal is rapidly varying
· Used to study performance under transient conditions

· In general, both static and dynamic characteristics are important to characterize a

given instrument

· Ordinary linear differential equation with constant coefficients is the most widely
used mathematical model to study dynamic response in the form

· Usually linear, time-invariant (LTI) system assumed

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Dynamic Characteristics of Instruments
· In an LTI system, input and output, for time t > 0, are related as:

d n qo d n 1qo dqo
an n
 a n 1 n 1
 ...  a1  ao q o
dt dt dt
(2.1) d m qi d m 1qi dq
 bm m  bm 1 m 1  ...  b1 i  bo qi
dt dt dt

· where qi is the measured (input) quantity, q0 is the output reading and a0 . . .

an, b0 . . . bm are constants
· Using the method of Laplace-transform, equation (2.1) is
(a n S n  an 1 S n 1  ...  a1 S  ao )Qo ( S )  (bm S m  bm 1 S m 1  ...  b1 S  bo )Qi ( S )

· Or

Qo ( S ) bm S m  bm 1 S m 1  ...  b1 S  bo
 H (S ) 
Qi ( S ) an S n  an 1 S n 1  ...  a1 S  ao
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Dynamic Characteristics of Instruments
· If we limit consideration to step changes in the measured quantity only, then
Equation (2.1) reduces to:

d n qo d n 1qo dqo (2.3)

an n
 an 1 n 1  ...  a1  ao qo  bo qi
dt dt dt

• So that

bo
H (S ) 
an S n  an 1 S n 1  ...  a1 S  ao

• Based on the order of Equation (2.3), equipment's are classified as zero-, first-,
and second-order instruments

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Zero-order instruments
·
• When all the coefficients a1 . . . an other than a0 and bo are assumed to be zero,
 Equation (2.3) then degenerates into
a0 qo  b0 qi
(2.4)

· Any instrument that closely obeys Equation (2.4) is defined to be a zero-

order instrument

· The two constants can be combined

b to give
qo  o
qi  Kqi
ao
(2.5)

· where K= is static sensitivity

· From Equation (2.4), no matter how qi might vary with time, the output follows it
perfectly with no distortion or time lag
· Zero-order instrument represents ideal or perfect dynamic performance
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Zero-order instruments
· Example: Displacement measuring potentiometer
· Given linear distribution of resistance along length L, the output voltage eo can be
written as
xi
eo  Eb  Kqi
L

· Measurement error em = Kqi - eo = o (ideal)

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First-order instruments
· If all the coefficients a2 . . . an except for a0, a1, and b0 are assumed zero in
equation (2.3) then:
dqo
a1  ao qo  bo qi
dt
(2.6)

· Using the Laplace transform and rearranging, we get

b0 / a0
Qo  Qi
1  (a1 / a0 ) S
(2.7)

· Defining K = b0/a0 as the static sensitivity and =a1/a0 as the time constant of the
system, equation (2.7) becomes

K
Qo  Qi
1  S (2.8)

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First-order instruments
· Examples of first-order instruments
· Temperature measurement system
· Amplifiers
· Electromechanical and electronic meters
· Graphical recorders
· CRO (RC and RL network of CRO)

· The dynamic behavior can be studied with the response of the system due to
standard test inputs
· Example: Impulse, step, ramp, sinusoidal inputs

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First-order instruments
· If equation (2.8) is solved analytically, the output q0 in response to a step change
in qi at time t is shown in the figure below
· Time constant  is the time taken for the output quantity q0 to reach 63% of
its final value

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Performance Parameter
· Dynamic characteristics that are useful in characterizing the speed of response of
any instrument include

· Rise Time: Time required for a response to reach 90% of the step input (final
value)

· Settling time: Time to reach and stay within a stated  tolerance value around its
final value

· Knowing fast response requires a small value of 

· Need to know which parameters to vary to reduced settling time

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 Exercise
1. From the First order RC and RL SERIES NETWORK
A) Find the input and output Equation?
B) Find the time constant and static sensitivity factor?
C) Find the Transfer and System function?
2. Determine the step response of First order system and sketch the system including
all parameter?
3. Repeat Exercise 2 for the Ramp response?
4. Repeat Exercise 2 for the Sinusoidal signal?

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Second-order Instrument
· If all coefficients a3 . . . an other than a0, a1 and a2 in equation (2.2) are assumed
zero, then we get:
d 2 qo dqo
a2 2
 a1  ao qo  bo qi
dt dt

· Applying Laplace transform and rearranging:

bo
H (S ) 
a2 S 2  a1 S  ao
(2.9)

· Defining K (static sensitivity), ωn (un-damped natural frequency) and  (damping

ratio) as K  b / a ;   a / a ;   a /( 2 a a )
0 0 n 0 2 1 0 2

· Equation (2.9), in terms of K, ω and , becomes

K K n2
H (S )  2 2  2
S /  n  2S / n  1 S  2n S   n2
(2.10) 31
Second-order Instrument
· If equation (2.10) is solved analytically, the shape of the step response depends on
the value of 
A. = 0 is no damping case
and constant amplitude oscillations
B. = 0.2, we is still oscillatory
response, but the oscillations
gradually die down
C. When  is increased further,
oscillations reduces and
overshoot (see curves
(C) and (D))
D. Overdamped response as
shown by curve (E)
Output reading creeps
up slowly towards the
correct reading

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Second-order Instrument
· = 1: critically damped
· <1: under damped
· >1: Over damped
· Exercise:
1. Determine the step and sinusoidal response analytically the second order system.
2. Consider a series RLC circuit and find the Transfer function and all constants?

· Example of 2nd order system

· The d’Arsonval (permanent magnet moving coil) movement

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Dynamic characteristics of Measurement System
· Measurement Systems especially in industrial, aerospace and Biological
applications are subject to inputs which are not static but dynamic in nature i.e. the
inputs vary with time and also the output vary with time.
· The Dynamic characteristics of any measurement system described by
1. Speed of Response
2. Measuring Lag
3. Fidelity
4. Dynamic Error

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Terms used for dynamic characteristics
1. Response time: Time elapsed between an input is applied and the time in which
the system gives an output corresponding to some specified percentage, e.g.
95%, of its final value
2. Rise time: Time taken for the output to rise to some specified percentage of the
steady-state output. Often the rise time refers to the time taken for the output to
rise from 10% of the steady-state value to 90 of the steady-state value.
3. Settling time: This is the time taken for the output to settle to within some
percentage, e.g. 2%, of the steady-state value

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Terms used for dynamic characteristics
4. Measuring Lag:-An instrument does not immediately react a change in output
Measuring Lag is defined as the delay in the response of an instrument to a change
in a Measuring quantity.
Two types of Measuring Lag
1. Retardation type:-In this case the response of the instrument begins
immediately after a change in the measured has occurred.
2. Time Delay type:-In this case the response of the system begins after a
“Dead Time” that means after the application of the input.
5. Fidelity of a measurement system is defined as the ability of the system to
reproduce the output in the same variation of the input.
In Fidelity measurement system , there is no time lag or Phase shift between
the input and output

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Terms used for dynamic characteristics
6. Dynamic Error is the difference between the measured value of the instrument
changing with time and the value indicated by the instrument if no static error is
assumed.

7. Standard signals of Instrumentation system

Dynamic behavior of measurement systems can be studied with the help of
certain standard signals.
These standard signals are Step Input, Ramp Input and Sinusoidal input

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 Exercise
A Step input of 5A is applied to the Analogue current meter. the Analogue current
meter pointer swings to 5.18A and finally comes to rest at 5.02A.
a) Determine the Overshoot of the reading in Ampere and in percentage of final
reading
b) Determine the percentage error of the instrument

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THANK YOU…..

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