8

FURTHER APPLICATIONS
OF INTEGRATION
FURTHER APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION

8.3
Applications to
Physics and Engineering

In this section, we will learn about:

The applications of integral calculus to
force due to water pressure and centers of mass.
APPLICATIONS TO PHYSICS AND ENGINEERING

As with our previous applications to geometry

(areas, volumes, and lengths) and to work,
our strategy is:

 Break up the physical quantity into small parts.

 Approximate each small part.
 Add the results.
 Take the limit.
 Then, evaluate the resulting integral.
HYDROSTATIC FORCE AND PRESSURE

Deep-sea divers realize that water

pressure increases as they dive deeper.

 This is because the weight of the water

above them increases.
HYDROSTATIC FORCE AND PRESSURE

Suppose that a thin plate with area A m2 is

submerged in a fluid of density ρ kg/m3 at a
depth d meters below the surface of the fluid.
HYDROSTATIC FORCE AND PRESSURE

The fluid directly above the plate has volume

V = Ad
So, its mass is:
m = ρV = ρAd
HYDROSTATIC FORCE

Thus, the force exerted by the fluid on

the plate is
F = mg = ρgAd
where g is the acceleration due to gravity.
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE

The pressure P on the plate is defined

to be the force per unit area:
F
P    gd
A
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE

The SI unit for measuring pressure is newtons

per square meter—which is called a pascal
(abbreviation: 1 N/m2 = 1 Pa).

 As this is a small unit, the kilopascal (kPa)

is often used.
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE

For instance, since the density of water is

ρ = 1000 kg/m3, the pressure at the bottom
of a swimming pool 2 m deep is:

P   gd
 1000 kg/m  9.8 m/s  2 m
3 2

 19, 600 Pa
 19.6 kPa
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE

An important principle of fluid pressure is

the experimentally verified fact that, at any
point in a liquid, the pressure is the same in
all directions.

 This is why a diver feels the same pressure

on nose and both ears.
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE Equation 1

Thus, the pressure in any direction at

a depth d in a fluid with mass density ρ
is given by:

P   gd   d
HYDROSTATIC FORCE AND PRESSURE

This helps us determine the hydrostatic

force against a vertical plate or wall or dam
in a fluid.

 This is not a straightforward problem.

 The pressure is not constant, but increases

as the depth increases.
HYDROSTATIC F AND P Example 1

A dam has the shape of the trapezoid

shown below.

 The height is 20 m.
 The width is 50 m at the top and 30 m at the bottom.
HYDROSTATIC F AND P Example 1

Find the force on the dam due to

hydrostatic pressure if the water level
is 4 m from the top of the dam.
HYDROSTATIC F AND P Example 1

We choose a vertical x-axis with origin

at the surface of the water.
HYDROSTATIC F AND P Example 1

The depth of the water is 16 m.

 So, we divide the interval [0, 16] into subintervals
of equal length with endpoints xi.

 We choose
xi*  [xi–1, xi].
HYDROSTATIC F AND P Example 1

The i th horizontal strip of the dam is

approximated by a rectangle with height Δx
and width wi
HYDROSTATIC F AND P Example 1

From similar triangles,

a 10 16  xi
* *
xi
 or a  8
16  xi *
20 2 2
HYDROSTATIC F AND P Example 1

Hence,
wi  2(15  a )
 2(15  8  xi )
1
2
*

 46  xi *
HYDROSTATIC F AND P Example 1

If Ai is the area of the strip, then

Ai  wi x  (46  xi ) x
*

If Δx is small, then the pressure Pi on the i th

strip is almost constant, and we can use
Equation 1 to write: Pi  1000 gxi *
HYDROSTATIC F AND P Example 1

The hydrostatic force Fi acting on the i th

strip is the product of the pressure and
the area:

Fi  Pi Ai
 1000 gxi (46  xi ) x
* *
HYDROSTATIC F AND P Example 1

Adding these forces and taking the limit as

n → ∞, the total hydrostatic force on the dam
n
is: F  lim 1000 gxi (46  xi ) x
* *
n 
i 1
16
  1000 gx(46  x) dx
0
16
 1000(9.8)  (46 x  x ) dx 2
0
16
 x  3
 9800  23 x    4.43 107 N
2

 3 0
HYDROSTATIC F AND P Example 2

Find the hydrostatic force on one end of

a cylindrical drum with radius 3 ft, if the drum
is submerged in water
10 ft deep.
HYDROSTATIC F AND P Example 2

In this example, it is convenient to choose

the axes as shown—so that the origin is
placed at the center
of the drum.

 Then, the circle has

a simple equation:

x2 + y2 = 9
HYDROSTATIC F AND P Example 2

As in Example 1, we divide the circular

region into horizontal strips of equal width.
HYDROSTATIC F AND P Example 2

From the equation of the circle, we see that

the length of the i th strip is: 2 9  ( yi )
* 2

So, its area is:

Ai  2 9  ( yi ) y
* 2
HYDROSTATIC F AND P Example 2

The pressure on this strip is approximately

 di  62.5(7  yi )*

So, the force on the strip is approximately

 di Ai  62.5(7  yi* )2 9  ( yi * ) 2 y
HYDROSTATIC F AND P Example 2

We get the total force by adding the forces

on all the strips and taking the limit:
n
F  lim  62.5(7  yi )2 9  ( yi ) y
* * 2
n 
i 1
3
 125 (7  y ) 9  y dy 2
3
3 3
 125  7  9  y dy  125 y 9  y dy
2 2
3 3
HYDROSTATIC F AND P Example 2

The second integral is 0 because

the integrand is an odd function.

 See Theorem 7 in Section 5.5

HYDROSTATIC F AND P Example 2

The first integral can be evaluated using

the trigonometric substitution y = 3 sin θ.

However, it’s simpler to observe that it is

the area of a semicircular disk with radius 3.
HYDROSTATIC F AND P Example 2

Thus,
3
F  875 9  y dy
2
3

 875   (3)
1
2
2

7875

2
 12,370 lb
MOMENTS AND CENTERS OF MASS

Our main objective here is to find the point P

on which a thin plate of any given shape
balances horizontally as shown.
CENTERS OF MASS

This point is called the center of mass

(or center of gravity) of the plate.
CENTERS OF MASS

We first consider the simpler

situation illustrated here.
CENTERS OF MASS

Two masses m1 and m2 are attached to

a rod of negligible mass on opposite sides
of a fulcrum and at distances d1 and d2 from
the fulcrum.
CENTERS OF MASS Equation 2

The rod will balance if:

m1d1  m2 d 2
LAW OF THE LEVER

This is an experimental fact discovered by

Archimedes and called the Law of the Lever.

 Think of a lighter person balancing a heavier one

on a seesaw by sitting farther away from the center.
MOMENTS AND CENTERS OF MASS

Now, suppose that the rod lies along

the x-axis, with m1 at x1 and m2 at x2
and the center of mass at x.
MOMENTS AND CENTERS OF MASS

Comparing the figures,

we see that:

 d1 = x – x 1
 d2 = x 1 – x
CENTERS OF MASS Equation 3

So, Equation 2 gives:

m1 ( x  x1 )  m2 ( x2  x )

m1 x  m2 x  m1 x1  m2 x2

m1 x1  m2 x2
x
m1  m2
MOMENTS OF MASS

The numbers m1x1 and m2x2 are called

the moments of the masses m1 and m2
(with respect to the origin).
MOMENTS OF MASS

m1 x1  m2 x2
x
m1  m2

Equation 3 says that the center of mass x

is obtained by:

1. Adding the moments of the masses

2. Dividing by the total mass m = m1 + m2
CENTERS OF MASS Equation 4

In general, suppose we have a system of n

particles with masses m1, m2, . . . , mn located
at the points x1, x2, . . . , xn on the x-axis.

Then, we can show where the center of mass

of the system is located—as follows.
CENTERS OF MASS Equation 4

The center of mass of the system is

located at n n

m x m x
i i i i
x i 1
n
 i 1

m
m
i 1
i

where m = Σ mi is the total mass of

the system.
MOMENT OF SYSTEM ABOUT ORIGIN

The sum of the individual moments

n
M   mi xi
i 1

is called the moment of the system

about the origin.
MOMENT OF SYSTEM ABOUT ORIGIN

Then, Equation 4 could be rewritten

as:
mx =M

 This means that, if the total mass were considered

as being concentrated at the center of mass x ,
then its moment would be the same as the moment
of the system.
MOMENTS AND CENTERS OF MASS

Now, we consider a system of n particles with

masses m1, m2, . . . , mn located at the points
(x1, y1), (x2, y2) . . . , (xn, yn) in the xy-plane.
MOMENT ABOUT AXES Equations 5 and 6

By analogy with the one-dimensional case,

we define the moment of the system about
n
the y-axis as
M y   mi xi
i 1

and the moment of the system about

the x-axis as n
M x   mi yi
i 1
MOMENT ABOUT AXES

My measures the tendency of the system

to rotate about the y-axis.

Mx measures the tendency of the system

to rotate about the x-axis.
CENTERS OF MASS Equation 7

As in the one-dimensional case,

the coordinates ( x , y ) of the center of mass
are given in terms of the moments by
the formulas
My Mx
x y
m m

where m = ∑ mi is the total mass.

MOMENTS AND CENTERS OF MASS

Since mx  M y and my  M x ,
the center of mass ( x , y ) is the point
where a single particle of mass m would
have the same moments as the system.
MOMENTS & CENTERS OF MASS Example 3

Find the moments and center of mass

of the system of objects that have masses
3, 4, and 8 at the points (–1, 1), (2, –1) and
(3, 2) respectively.
MOMENTS & CENTERS OF MASS Example 3

We use Equations 5 and 6 to compute

the moments:

M y  3(1)  4(2)  8(3)  29

M x  3(1)  4(1)  8(2)  15

MOMENTS & CENTERS OF MASS Example 3

As m = 3 + 4 + 8 = 15, we use Equation 7

to obtain:

My29 M x 15
x  y  1
m 15 m 15
MOMENTS & CENTERS OF MASS Example 3

Thus, the center of mass is:

(1 14
15 ,1)
CENTROIDS

Next, we consider a flat plate, called

a lamina, with uniform density ρ that
occupies a region R of the plane.

 We wish to locate the center of mass of the plate,

which is called the centroid of R .
CENTROIDS

In doing so, we use

the following physical
principles.
CENTROIDS

The symmetry principle says that, if R is

symmetric about a line l, then the centroid
of R lies on l.

 If R is reflected about l, then R remains the same

so its centroid remains fixed.

 However, the only fixed points lie on l.

 Thus, the centroid of a rectangle is its center.

CENTROIDS

Moments should be defined so that, if

the entire mass of a region is concentrated
at the center of mass, then its moments
remain unchanged.
CENTROIDS

Also, the moment of the union of two

non-overlapping regions should be
the sum of the moments of the individual
regions.
CENTROIDS

Suppose that the region R is of the type

shown here.
That is, R lies:

 Between the lines

x = a and x = b
 Above the x-axis
 Beneath the graph
of f, where f is a
continuous function
CENTROIDS

We divide the interval [a, b] into n subintervals

with endpoints x0, x1, . . . , xn and equal width
∆x.
 We choose the
sample point xi* to
be the midpoint xi
of the i th
subinterval.
 That is,
xi = (xi–1 + xi)/2
CENTROIDS

This determines the polygonal

approximation to R shown below.
CENTROIDS

The centroid of the i th approximating

rectangle Ri is its center Ci ( xi , 12 f ( xi )) .

Its area is:

f( x i ) ∆x
So, its mass is:
 f ( xi ) x
CENTROIDS

The moment of Ri about the y-axis is

the product of its mass and the distance
from Ci to the y-axis,
which is xi .
CENTROIDS

Therefore,

M y ( Ri )    f ( xi )x  xi
  xi f ( xi )x
CENTROIDS

Adding these moments, we

obtain the moment of the polygonal
approximation to R .
CENTROIDS

Then, by taking the limit as n → ∞,

we obtain the moment of R itself about
the y-axis: n
M y  lim   xi f ( xi ) x
n 
i 1
b
   x f ( x) dx
a
CENTROIDS

Similarly, we compute the moment of Ri

about the x-axis as the product of its mass
and the distance from Ci to the x-axis:

M x ( Ri )    f ( xi )x  1
2 f ( xi )
 f ( xi )
2
  1
2 x
CENTROIDS

Again, we add these moments and take

the limit to obtain the moment of R about
the x-axis:
n
M x  lim     f ( xi )
2
1
2 x
n 
i 1

 f ( x)
b
 
2
1
dx
a 2
CENTROIDS

Just as for systems of particles,

the center of mass of the plate is
defined so that

mx  M y and my  M x
CENTROIDS

However, the mass of the plate is

the product of its density and its area:

m  A
b
   f ( x) dx
a
CENTROIDS
b b
Thus, My   xf ( x) dx  xf ( x) dx
x  a
b
 a
b
m   f ( x) dx
a  f ( x) dx
a

M x    f ( x)  dx   f ( x) dx
b 2 b 2
1 1
a 2 a 2
y  b
 b
m   f ( x) dx
a  f ( x) dx
a

 Notice the cancellation of the ρ’s.

 The location of the center of mass is independent
of the density.
CENTROIDS Formula 8

In summary, the center of mass of the plate

(or the centroid of R ) is located at the point
( x , y ) , where
1 b
x   xf ( x) dx
A a

1 b1
y   2  f ( x)  dx
2

A a
CENTERS OF MASS Example 4

Find the center of mass of a semicircular

plate of radius r.

 To use Equation 8, we place the semicircle as shown

so that f(x) = √(r2 – x2) and a = –r, b = r.
CENTERS OF MASS Example 4

Here, there is no need to use the formula

to calculate x.
 By the symmetry principle, the center of mass
must lie on the y-axis, so x  0 .
CENTERS OF MASS Example 4

The area of the semicircle is A = ½πr2.

1 r 1
Thus, y   2  f ( x ) dx
2

A r
1 1 r
 
2
 1 2 2 r  x dx
2 2

2  r r

r
2 2  2 x 
3

0  r  x  dx   r 2
r
 2 2 2
r x  
r  3 0
2 2r 3 4r
 2 
r 3 3
CENTERS OF MASS Example 4

The center of mass is located at

the point (0, 4r/(3π)).
CENTERS OF MASS Example 5

Find the centroid of the region bounded

by the curves
y = cos x, y = 0, x = 0, x = π/2
CENTERS OF MASS Example 5

The area of the region is:

 2
cos x dx  sin x  0
 2
A
0

1
CENTROIDS Example 5

So, Formulas 8 give:

1  /2 1  /2 1
y   2  f ( x)  dx
2
x   xf ( x) dx
A a A a
 /2  /2

0
x cos x dx  1
2 a
cos 2 x dx
 /2
 x sin x  0   1  cos 2 x  dx
 2
 1
4 a
 2
x sin 2 x  0
 /2
 sin x dx  1
4
1
2
0

 
 1 
2 8
CENTROIDS Example 5

The centroid is ((π/2) – 1, π/8).

CENTROIDS

Suppose the region R lies between

two curves y = f(x) and y = g(x), where
f(x) ≥ g(x).
CENTROIDS Formula 9

Then, the same sort of argument that led

to Formulas 8 can be used to show that
the centroid of R is ( x , y ), where

1 b
x   x  f ( x)  g ( x)  dx
A a
1 b1
 
y   2  f ( x)    g ( x)  dx
A a
2 2
CENTROIDS Example 6

Find the centroid of the region

bounded by the line x = y and
the parabola y = x2.
CENTROIDS Example 6

The region is sketched here.

We take f(x) = x, g(x) = x2, a = 0, and b = 1

in Formulas 9.
CENTROIDS Example 6

First, we note that the area of the region

is: 1
A   ( x  x ) dx
2
0
1
x x 2 3
  
2 2 0
1

6
CENTROIDS Example 6

Therefore,

1 1
A 0
1 11
A
 2

x   x  f ( x )  g ( x)  dx y  0 2  f ( x)   g ( x) dx
2

1 1 1 11 2
 1  2 ( x  x 4 ) dx
 1  x( x  x ) dx
2
6
0
0
6 1
1 x x 
3 5

 6 ( x  x ) dx
2 3  3  
0  3 5 0
4 1 2
x x  13

 6    5
 3 4 0 2
CENTROIDS Example 6
 1 2
The centroid is:  ,  
2 5
CENTROIDS

We end this section by showing

a surprising connection between
centroids and volumes of revolution.
THEOREM OF PAPPUS

Let R be a plane region that lies entirely

on one side of a line l in the plane.

If R is rotated about l, then the volume of

the resulting solid is the product of the area A
of R and the distance d traveled by
the centroid of R .
THEOREM OF PAPPUS Proof

We give the proof for the special case

in which the region lies between y = f(x)
and y = g(x) as shown and the line l
is the y-axis.
THEOREM OF PAPPUS Proof

By the cylindrical shells method (Section 6.3),

we have: V  2 x  f ( x )  g ( x)  dx
b
 a

 2  x  f ( x)  g ( x)  dx
b

 2 ( xA) (Formulas 9)
 (2 x ) A
 Ad
 d  2 x is the distance traveled by the centroid
during one rotation about the y-axis.
THEOREM OF PAPPUS Example 7

A torus is formed by rotating a circle of

radius r about a line in the plane of the circle
that is a distance R(> r) from the center of
the circle.

Find the volume of the torus.

THEOREM OF PAPPUS Example 7

The circle has area A = πr2.

By the symmetry principle, its centroid is

its center.

 So, the distance traveled by the centroid during

a rotation is d = 2πR.
THEOREM OF PAPPUS Example 7

Therefore, by the Theorem of Pappus,

the volume of the torus is:

V  Ad
 (2 R)( r ) 2

 2 r R
2 2
THEOREM OF PAPPUS

Compare the method of

Example 7 with that of Exercise 63
in Section 6.2