Chapter04 Chemical Quantities and Acqueuos Reactions

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, 1st Ed.
Nivaldo Tro
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Roy Kennedy
Massachusetts Bay Community College
Wellesley Hills, MA
2008, Prentice Hall
Reaction Stoichiometry
the numerical relationships between chemical amounts
in a reaction is called

the coefficients in a balanced chemical equation
specify the relative amounts in moles of each of the
substances involved in the reaction
2 C8H18( Ñ + 25 O2(Ñ ? 16 CO2(Ñ + 18 H2O(Ñ
2 molecules of C8H18 react with 25 molecules of O2
to form 16 molecules of CO2 and 18 molecules of H2O
2 moles of C8H18 react with 25 moles of O2
to form 16 moles of CO2 and 18 moles of H2O
2 mol C8H18 : 25 mol O2 : 16 mol CO2 : 18 mol H2O
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 2
Predicting Amounts from Stoichiometry
the amounts of any other substance in a chemical
reaction can be determined from the amount of
just one substance
How much CO2 can be made from 22.0 moles of
C8H18 in the combustion of C8H18?
2 C8H18( Ñ + 25 O2(Ñ ? 16 CO2(Ñ + 18 H2O(Ñ
2 moles C8H18 : 16 moles CO2
16 mol CO 2
22 moles C8H18 · 176 moles CO 2
2 mol C8H18
Example ± Estimate the mass of CO2 produced in
2004 by the combustion of 3.4 x 1015 g gasoline
assuming that gasoline is octane, C8H18, the equation
for the reaction is:
2 C8H18( Ñ + 25 O2(Ñ ? 16 CO2(Ñ + 18 H2O(Ñ
the equation for the reaction gives the mole relationship
between amount of C8H18 and CO2, but we need to
know the mass relationship, so the Concept Plan will
be:
g C8H18 mol C8H18 mol CO2 g CO2

Example ± Estimate the mass of CO2 produced in
2004 by the combustion of 3.4 x 1015 g gasoline
3.4 x 1015 g C8H18

g CO2
|
g 8 18 mol 8 18 mol 2 g 2
1 mol 16 mol 44.01 g
2
114.22 g 2 mol 8 1 mol
18
1 mol C8H18 = 114.22g, 1 mol CO2 = 44.01g, 2 mol C8H18 = 16 mol CO2
1 mol C8 H18 16 mol CO 2 44.01 g CO 2
15
3.4 ½ 10 g C8 H18 ½ ½ ½
114.22 g C8 H18 2 mol C8 H18 1 mol CO 2
1.0 ½ 1016 g CO 2
|
since 8x moles of CO as C H , but the molar mass of C H is
2 8 18 8 18
3x CO2, the number makes sense
Practice
According to the following equation, how
many milliliters of water are made in the
combustion of 9.0 g of glucose?
C6H12O6(Ñ + 6 O2(Ñ ? 6 CO2(Ñ + 6 H2O( Ñ
1. convert 9.0 g of glucose into moles (MM 180Ñ
2. convert moles of glucose into moles of water
3. convert moles of water into grams (MM 18.02Ñ
4. convert grams of water into mL
aÑ How? what is the relationship between mass and
volume?
density of water = 1.00 g/mL
Practice
Accordin to the followin equation, how many
milliliters of water are made in the combustion of
of lucose?
C (Ñ + 6 O2(Ñ ? 6 CO2(Ñ + 6 H2O( Ñ
mole C mole m
C
mole C mole
· m
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach

Limiting Reactant
for reactions with multiple reactants, it is likely that
one of the reactants will be completely used before the
others
when this reactant is used up, the reaction stops and no
more product is made
the reactant that limits the amount of product is called
the

´ sometimes called the limiting reagent
´ the limiting reactant gets completely consumed
reactants not completely consumed are called

the amount of product that can be made from the
limiting reactant is called the

Things Don¶t Always Go as Planned!
many things can happen during the course of an
experiment that cause the loss of product
the amount of product that is made in a reaction
is called the

´generally less than the theoretical yield, never more!
the efficiency of product recovery is generally
given as the

½ ù

Limiting and Excess Reactants in the
Combustion of Methane
CH4(Ñ +
O2(Ñ ? CO2(Ñ +
H2O(Ñ
Our balanced equation for the combustion of methane
implies that every 1 molecule of CH4 reacts with 2
molecules of O2
O O O O
H H H H
C + + C + +
H H
O O O
O H H

CH4(Ñ +
O2(Ñ ? CO2(Ñ +
H2O(Ñ
If we have 5 molecules of CH4 and 8 molecules
of O2, which is the limiting reactant?
H H H H O O O O
C C
H H H H
H H
+ O O O O ?
C
H H O O O O
H H H H
C C O O O O
H H H H 11
CH (Ñ +
O2(Ñ ? CO2(Ñ +
H2O(Ñ
H H H H O O O O since less CO2
C C
H H H H can be made
H H
+ O O O O from the O2 than
C the CH4, the O2
H H O O O O
H H is the limiting
H H
C C O O O O reactant
H H H H
2 mo ecu es CO 2
mo ecu es CH · 1 mo ecu es CO 2
1 mo ecu es CH

·
12
x

!
"
# !

#
Example:
When 28.6 kg of C are allowed to react with 88.2 kg of
TiO2 in the reaction below, 42.8 kg of Ti are obtained.
Find the Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and
Percent Yield.
TiO 2º 6 2 Cº ? Tiº 6 2 COº

Example:
When 28.6 kg of C reacts with 88.2
kg of TiO2, 42.8 kg of Ti are
obtained. Find the Limiting
Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and
Percent Yield.
TiO2(Ñ + 2 C(Ñ ? Ti(Ñ + 2 CO(Ñ
Write down the given quantity and its units.

Given: 28.6 kg C
88.2 kg TiO2
42.8 kg Ti produced

Example: Information
Find the Limiting Given: 28.6 kg C, 88.2 kg TiO2, 42.8 kg Ti
Reactant, Theoretical
Yield, and Percent Yield.
TiO2(Ñ + 2 C(Ñ ?
Ti(Ñ + 2 CO(Ñ
Write down the quantity to find and/or its units.

Find: limiting reactant
theoretical yield
percent yield

Reactant, Theoretical Find: Lim. Rct., Theor. Yld., % Yld.
TiO2(Ñ + 2 C(Ñ ?
Ti(Ñ + 2 CO(Ñ
Write a Concept Plan:

kg g
C
kg
TiO2
kg
kg
g
g
C
g
TiO2
2
C
gC
TiO 2
g TiO 2
C
TiO2
2
Ti
C
Ti
TiO 2
Ti
Ti
} s a est
a unt is
fr
i iting
reactant
s a est kg Ti
g g Ti kg act ie d % Yie d
Ti Ti g
T.Y. % ie d ·
t e r ie d
1
TiO2(Ñ + 2 C(Ñ ? CP: kg rct ? g rct ? mol rct ? mol Ti
Ti(Ñ + 2 CO(Ñ pick smallest mol Ti ? TY kg Ti ? %Y Ti
Collect Needed Relationships:

1000 g = 1 kg
Molar Mass TiO2 = 9.8 g/mol
Molar Mass Ti = 4 .8 g/mol
Molar Mass C = 12.01 g/mol
1 mole TiO2 : 1 mol Ti (from the chem. equationÑ
2 mole C ë 1 mol Ti (from the chem. equationÑ
18
Find the Limitin Given: 6 C, Ti , Ti
Reactant, Theoretical Find: Lim Rct , Theor Yld , % Yld
Yield, and Percent CP: rct ? rct ? mol rct ? mol Ti
Yield pic smallest mol Ti ? TY Ti ? %Y Ti
Ti (Ñ + 2 C(Ñ ? Rel: 1 mol C=1 1 ; 1 mol Ti = ;
Ti(Ñ + 2 CO(Ñ 1 mol Ti = 9 ; 1 =1 ;
1 mol Ti : 1 mol Ti; mol C : 1 mol Ti
Apply the Concept Plan:

C
2 C½ ½ ½ ½
2 C 2 C
1 1 mole Ti 1 mol Ti
Ti ½ ½ ½ 11 ½1 mol Ti
1 9 Ti 1 mol Ti
Limiting Reactant
smallest moles of Ti
Yield, and Percent CP: kg rct ? g rct ? mol rct ? mol Ti
Yield. pick smallest mol Ti ? TY kg Ti ? %Y Ti
TiO2(Ñ + 2 C(Ñ ? Rel: 1 mol C=12.01g; 1 mol Ti =4 .8 g;
Ti(Ñ + 2 CO(Ñ 1 mol TiO2 = 9.8 g; 1000g = 1 kg;
1 mol TiO2 : 1 mol Ti; 2 mol C : 1 mol Ti

4 .8 g Ti 1 kg
3
1.1043 10 mol Ti · 52.9 kg Ti
1 mol 1000 g
Theoretical Yield


Actual ield
½ 100ù Percent ield
Theoretica l ield
42.8 kg Ti
100% · 80.9%
52.9 kg Ti
Check the Solutions:

Limiting Reactant = TiO2
Theoretical Yield = 52.9 kg
Percent Yield = 80.9%
Since Ti has lower molar mass than TiO2, the T.Y. makes sense
The Percent Yield makes sense as it is less than 100%.
Practice ± How many grams of N2(Ñ can be made from
9.05 g of NH3 reacting with 45.2 g of CuO?
2 NH3(Ñ + 3 CuO(Ñ ĺ N2(Ñ + 3 Cu(Ñ + 3 H2O( Ñ

Practice ± How many grams of N2(Ñ can be made from 9.05 g of
NH3 reacting with 45.2 g of CuO?
9.05 g NH3, 45.2 g CuO
g N2
|
g mol mol
3 3 2
1 mol 1 mol 2
1 .03 g 2 mol 3
g CuO mol CuO mol 2

1 mol 1 mol 2
9.55 g 3 mol CuO
smallest moles 2 g 2
1 mol
28.02 g
1 mol NH3 = 1 .03g, 1 mol CuO = 9.55g, 1 mol N2 = 28.02 g
2 mol NH3 = 1 mol N2, 3 mol CuO = 1 mol N2
Practice ± How many grams of N2(Ñ can be made from 9.05 g of
NH3 reacting with 45.2 g of CuO?

1 mol NH 3 1 mol N 2
9.05 g NH 3 · 0.266 mol N 2
1 .03 g NH 3 2 mol NH 3
1 mol CuO 1 mol N 2
45.2 g CuO · 0.189 mol N 2
9.55 g CuO 3 mol CuO
28.02 g N 2
0.189 mol N 2 · 5.30 g N 2
1 mol N 2
|
units are correct, and since there are fewer moles
of N2 than CuO in the reaction and N2 has a
smaller mass, the number makes sense
Solutions
when table salt is mixed with water, it seems to disappear,
or become a liquid ± the mixture is homogeneous
´ the salt is still there, as you can tell from the taste, or simply
boiling away the water
homogeneous mixtures are called
the component of the solution that changes state is called
the
the component that keeps its state is called the
´ if both components start in the same state, the major component
is the solvent

Describing Solutions
since solutions are mixtures, the composition can
vary from one sample to another
´pure substances have constant composition
´salt water samples from different seas or lakes have
different amounts of salt
so to describe solutions accurately, we must
describe how much of each component is present
´we saw that with pure substances, we can describe
them with a single name because all samples identical

Solution Concentration
qualitatively, solutions are often
described as dilute or
concentrated
have a small
amount of solute compared to
solvent

have a
large amount of solute
compared to solvent
quantitatively, the relative
amount of solute in the solution
is called the

Solution Concentration
Molarity
moles of solute per 1 liter of solution
used because it describes how many molecules
of solute in each liter of solution
amount of solute in moles)

molarity, M ·
amount of solution in )

Preparing 1 L of a 1.00 M NaCl Solution

Example 4.5 ± Find the molarity of a solution that
has 25.5 g KBr dissolved in 1. 5 L of solution
Sort 25.5 g KBr, 1. 5 L solution
Information Molarity, M
Strategize |
g KBr mol KBr M
mol
L
1 mol M
119.00 gL sol¶n
1 mol KBr = 119.00 g,
M = moles/L
Follow the 1 mol KBr
Concept Plan 25.5 g KBr ½ 0.21429 mol KBr
119.00 g KBr
to the moles KBr 0.21429 mol KBr
problem molarity, M 0.122 M
L solution 1. 5 L
Check |
since most solutions are between 0 and
18 M, the answer makes sense
Using Molarity in Calculations
molarity shows the relationship between the
moles of solute and liters of solution
If a sugar solution concentration is 2.0 M, then
1 liter of solution contains 2.0 moles of sugar
´2 liters = 4.0 moles sugar
´0.5 liters = 1.0 mole sugar
1 L solution : 2 moles sugar
2 mol sugar 1 L solution
1 L solution 2 mol sugar
Example 4.6 ± How many liters of 0.125 M NaOH
contains 0.255 mol NaOH?
Sort 0.125 M NaOH, 0.255 mol NaOH
Information liters, L
Strategize |

mol NaOH L sol¶n
1 L solution
0.125 mol NaOH
0.125 mol NaOH = 1 L solution
Follow the

Concept Plan 1 L solution
to the 0.255 mol NaOH ½ 2.04 L solution
0.125 mol NaOH
problem
Check |
since each L has only 0.125 mol NaOH,
it makes sense that 0.255 mol should
require a little more than 2 L
Dilution
often, solutions are stored as concentrated

to make solutions of lower concentrations from these
stock solutions, more solvent is added
´ the amount of solute doesn¶t change, just the volume of
solution
moles solute in solution 1 = moles solute in solution 2
the concentrations and volumes of the stock and new
solutions are inversely proportional
J J

Example 4. ± To what volume should you dilute
0.200 L of 15.0 M NaOH to make 3.00 M NaOH?
Sort V1 = 0.200L, M1 = 15.0 M, M2 = 3.00 M
Information V2, L
Strategize |

V1, M1, M2 V2
M1 V1
V2
M2
M1V1 = M2V2
Follow the mol
15.0 0.200 o
Concept Plan o
1.00 o
to the mol
3.00
problem o
Check |
since the solution is diluted by a factor
of 5, the volume should increase by a
factor of 5, and it does
Solution Stoichiometry
since molarity relates the moles of solute to the
liters of solution, it can be used to convert
between amount of reactants and/or products in
a chemical reaction

Example 4.8 ± What volume of 0.150 M KCl is required to
completely react with 0.150 L of 0.1 5 M Pb(NO3Ñ2 in the
reaction 2 KCl(Ñ + Pb(NO3Ñ2(Ñ ? PbCl2(Ñ + 2 KNO3(Ñ
Sort 0.150 M KCl, 0.150 L of 0.1 5 M Pb(NO3Ñ2
Information
L KCl
Strategize |
L b( 3Ñ2 mol b( 3Ñ2 mol l L l
0.1 5 mol 2 mol l 1L l
1 L Pb(NO 3 Ñ 2 1 mol b( 3 Ñ2 0.150 mol
1 L Pb(NO3Ñ2 = 0.1 5 mol, 1 L KCl = 0.150 mol,

1 mol Pb(NO3Ñ2 = 2 mol KCl
Follow the
Concept 0.1 5 mol 2 mol KCl 1 L KCl
0.150 L Pb(NO 3 Ñ 2
Plan to 1 L Pb(NO 3 Ñ 2 1 mol Pb(NO 3 Ñ 2 0.150 mol
the
· 0.350 L KCl
problem
Check |
since need 2x moles of KCl as Pb(NO3Ñ2, and
the molarity of Pb(NO3Ñ2 > KCl, the volume of
KCl should be more than 2x volume Pb(NO3Ñ2
What Happens When a Solute Dissolves?
there are attractive forces between the solute particles
holding them together
there are also attractive forces between the solvent
molecules
when we mix the solute with the solvent, there are
attractive forces between the solute particles and the
solvent molecules
if the attractions between solute and solvent are strong
enough, the solute will dissolve
38
Table Salt Dissolving in Water
Each ion is attracted
to the surrounding
water molecules and
pulled off and away
from the crystal
When it enters the
solution, the ion is
surrounded by water
molecules, insulating
it from other ions
The result is a solution
with free moving
charged particles able
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach to conduct electricity 39
Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
materials that dissolve
in water to form a
solution that will
conduct electricity are
called

materials that dissolve
in water to form a
solution that will not
conduct electricity are
called

Molecular View of
Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
in order to conduct electricity, a material must have
charged particles that are able to flow
electrolyte solutions all contain ions dissolved in the
water
´ ionic compounds are electrolytes because they all dissociate
into their ions when they dissolve
nonelectrolyte solutions contain whole molecules
dissolved in the water
´ generally, molecular compounds do not ionize when they
dissolve in water
the notable exception being molecular acids

Salt vs. Sugar Dissolved in Water
ionic compounds dissociate molecular compounds do not

into ions when they dissolve dissociate when they dissolve
Acids
acids are molecular compounds that $ when they
dissolve in water
´ the molecules are pulled apart by their attraction for the water
´ when acids ionize, they form H+ cations and anions
the percentage of molecules that ionize varies from one
acid to another
acids that ionize virtually 100% are called

HCl(Ñ ? H+(Ñ + Cl-(Ñ
acids that only ionize a small percentage are called

HF(Ñ ö H+(Ñ + F-(Ñ
Strong and Weak Electrolytes

are materials that dissolve
completely as ions
´ ionic compounds and strong acids
´ their solutions conduct electricity well

are materials that dissolve mostly as
molecules, but partially as ions
´ weak acids
´ their solutions conduct electricity, but not well
when compounds containing a polyatomic ion dissolve,
the polyatomic ion stays together
Na2SO4(Ñ ? 2 Na+(Ñ + SO42-(Ñ
HC2H3O2(Ñ ö H+(Ñ + C2H3O2-(Ñ

Classes of Dissolved Materials

Solubility of Ionic Compounds
some ionic compounds, like NaCl, dissolve very well in
water at room temperature
other ionic compounds, like AgCl, dissolve hardly at all
in water at room temperature
compounds that dissolve in a solvent are said to be
%, while those that do not are said to be %
´ NaCl is soluble in water, AgCl is insoluble in water
´ the degree of solubility depends on the temperature
´ even insoluble compounds dissolve, just not enough to be
meaningful

When Will a Salt Dissolve?
Predicting whether a compound will dissolve in
water is not easy
The best way to do it is to do some experiments
to test whether a compound will dissolve in
water, then develop some rules based on those
experimental results
´we call this method the


Solubility Rules
Compounds that Are Generally Soluble in Water
| | x

& '
%
% (
%)
Li+, Na+, K+, NH4+ none
NO3±, C2H3O2± none
Cl±, Br±, I± Ag+, Hg22+, Pb2+
SO42± Ag+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Pb2+

Solubility Rules
Compounds that Are Generally Insoluble
x

| | '
%
& (
%
& % %)
OH± Li+, Na+, K+, NH4+,
Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+
S2± Li+, Na+, K+, NH4+,
Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+
CO32±, PO43± Li+, Na+, K+, NH4+
Precipitation Reactions
reactions between aqueous solutions of ionic
compounds that produce an ionic compound
that is insoluble in water are called

and the insoluble
product is called a


2 KI(Ñ Pb(NO3Ñ2(Ñ ? PbI2(Ñ + 2
KNO3(Ñ
51
No Precipitate Formation =
No Reaction
KI(Ñ + NaCl(Ñ ? KCl(Ñ + NaI(Ñ
all ions still present, no reaction

Process for Predicting the Products of
a Precipitation Reaction
1. Determine what ions each aqueous reactant has
2. Determine formulas of possible products
´ Exchange ions
(+Ñ ion from one reactant with (-Ñ ion from other
´ Balance charges of combined ions to get formula of each
product
3. Determine Solubility of Each Product in Water
´ Use the solubility rules
´ If product is insoluble or slightly soluble, it will precipitate
4. If neither product will precipitate, write

after the arrow
Process for Predicting the Products of
a Precipitation Reaction
5. If either product is insoluble, write the formulas
for the products after the arrow ± writing (Ñ
after the product that is insoluble and will
precipitate, and (Ñ after products that are
soluble and will not precipitate
6. Balance the equation

Example 4.10 ± Write the equation for the
precipitation reaction between an aqueous solution
of potassium carbonate and an aqueous solution of
nickel(IIÑ chloride
1. Write the formulas of the reactants
K2CO3(Ñ + NiCl2(Ñ ?
2. Determine the possible products
aÑ Determine the ions present
(K+ + CO32-Ñ + (Ni2+ + Cl-Ñ ?
bÑ Exchange the Ions
(K+ + CO32-Ñ + (Ni2+ + Cl-Ñ ? (K+ + Cl-Ñ + (Ni2+ + CO32-Ñ
cÑ Write the formulas of the products
cross charges and reduce
K2CO3(Ñ + NiCl2(Ñ ? KCl + NiCO3
3. Determine the solubility of each product
KCl is soluble
NiCO3 is insoluble
4. If both products soluble, write no reaction
does not apply since NiCO3 is insoluble

5. Write (Ñ next to soluble products and (Ñ next
to insoluble products
K2CO3(Ñ + NiCl2(Ñ ? KCl(Ñ + NiCO3(Ñ
6. Balance the Equation
K2CO3(Ñ + NiCl2(Ñ ? KCl(Ñ + NiCO3(Ñ

Ionic Equations
equations which describe the chemicals put into the water
and the product molecules are called

2 KOH(Ñ + Mg(NO3Ñ2(Ñ ? 2 KNO3(Ñ + Mg(OHÑ2(Ñ
equations which describe the actual dissolved species are
called

´ aqueous strong electrolytes are written as ions
soluble salts, strong acids, strong bases
´ insoluble substances, weak electrolytes, and nonelectrolytes
written in molecule form
solids, liquids, and gases are not dissolved, therefore molecule form
2K+1(Ñ + 2OH-1(Ñ + Mg+2(Ñ + 2NO3-1(Ñ ?K+1(Ñ + 2NO3-1(Ñ + Mg(OHÑ2(Ñ

Ionic Equations
ions that are both reactants and products are called

2K+1(Ñ + 2OH-1(Ñ + Mg+2(Ñ + 2NO3-1(Ñ ?K+1(Ñ + 2NO3-1(Ñ + Mg(OHÑ2(Ñ
an ionic equation in which the spectator ions are

removed is called a

2OH-1(Ñ + Mg+2(Ñ ?Mg(OHÑ2(Ñ

Acid-Base Reactions
also called $
because the
acid and base neutralize each other¶s properties
2 HNO3(Ñ + Ca(OHÑ2(Ñ ? Ca(NO3Ñ2(Ñ + 2 H2O( Ñ
the net ionic equation for an acid-base reaction is
H+(Ñ + OH$(Ñ ? H2O( Ñ
´as long as the salt that forms is soluble in water

Acids and Bases in Solution
acids ionize in water to form H+ ions
´ more precisely, the H from the acid molecule is donated to a
water molecule to form !*+,-
most chemists use H+ and H3O+ interchangeably
bases dissociate in water to form OH$ ions
´ bases, like NH3, that do not contain OH$ ions, produce OH$ by
pulling H off water molecules
in the reaction of an acid with a base, the H+ from the
acid combines with the OH$ from the base to make water
the cation from the base combines with the anion from
the acid to make the salt

-%?-
Common Acids
|

c o ic Acid C osi s c s on
i ic Acid osi s ii d on
osi s ii d
ic Acid on
i s
m c nin ood o
d oc o ic Acid C on
inin s om c cid
ii s ics &
os o ic Acid od
ood s ion
C o ic Acid C osi s od
s ics & ood
Ac ic Acid C
s ion in
do o ic Acid m c nin ss c in
C onic Acid C sod
oc o o s Acid C s ni i
o ic Acid s
Common Bases
| |

so ium lye, soap, plastic,
a tron
hy ro i e caustic so a petrol re inin
potassium soap, cotton,
caustic potash tron
hy ro i e electroplatin
calcium
Ca sla e lime cement tron
hy ro i e
so ium
a C 3 a in so a coo in , antaci ea
icar onate
ma nesium mil o
M antaci ea
hy ro i e ma nesia
eter ent,
ammonium , ammonia
ertili er, ea
hy ro i e { 3 a ater
e plosi es, i ers
HCl(Ñ NaOH(Ñ ? NaCl(Ñ + H2O( Ñ

Example - Write the molecular, ionic, and net-
ionic equation for the reaction of aqueous nitric
acid with aqueous calcium hydroxide
HNO3(Ñ + Ca(OHÑ2(Ñ ?
aÑ Determine the ions present when each reactant dissociates
(H+ + NO3-Ñ + (Ca+2 + OH-Ñ ?
bÑ Exchange the ions, H+1 combines with OH-1 to make H2O( Ñ
(H+ + NO3-Ñ + (Ca+2 + OH-Ñ ? (Ca+2 + NO3-Ñ + H2O( Ñ
cÑ Write the formula of the salt
´ cross the charges
(H+ + NO3-Ñ + (Ca+2 + OH-Ñ ? Ca(NO3Ñ2 + H2O( Ñ
3. Determine the solubility of the salt
Ca(NO3Ñ2 is soluble
4. Write an (Ñ after the insoluble products and a
(Ñ after the soluble products
HNO3(Ñ + Ca(OHÑ2(Ñ ? Ca(NO3Ñ2(Ñ + H2O( Ñ
5. Balance the equation
2 HNO3(Ñ + Ca(OHÑ2(Ñ ? Ca(NO3Ñ2(Ñ + 2 H2O( Ñ

6. Dissociate all aqueous strong electrolytes to
get complete ionic equation
´ not H2O
2 H+(Ñ + 2 NO3-(Ñ + Ca+2(Ñ + 2 OH-(Ñ ?
Ca+2(Ñ + 2 NO3-(Ñ + H2O( Ñ
. Eliminate spectator ions to get net-ionic
equation
2 H+1(Ñ + 2 OH-1(Ñ ? H2O( Ñ
H+1(Ñ + OH-1(Ñ ? H2O( Ñ
Titration
often in the lab, a solution¶s concentration is
determined by reacting it with another material
and using stoichiometry ± this process is called

in the titration, the unknown solution is added
to a known amount of another reactant until
the reaction is just completed, at this point,
called the , the reactants are in their
stoichiometric ratio
´ the unknown solution is added slowly from an
instrument called a %
a long glass tube with precise volume markings that
allows small additions of solution
Acid-Base Titrations
the difficulty is determining when there has been just
enough titrant added to complete the reaction
´ the titrant is the solution in the burette
in acid-base titrations, because both the reactant and
product solutions are colorless, a chemical is added that
changes color when the solution undergoes large
changes in acidity/alkalinity
´ the chemical is called an

at the endpoint of an acid-base titration, the number of
moles of H+ equals the number of moles of OH$
´ aka the

Titration

Titration
The base solution is the
titrant in the burette.
As the base is added to
the acid, the H+ reacts with
the OH± to form water.
But there is still excess
acid present so the color
does not change.
At the titration¶s endpoint,
just enough base has been
added to neutralize all the
acid. At this point the
indicator changes color.
Example 4.14:
The titration of 10.00 mL of HCl
solution of unknown concentration
requires 12.54 mL of 0.100 M
NaOH solution to reach the end
point. What is the concentration of
the unknown HCl solution?
Write down the given quantity and its units.

Given: 10.00 mL HCl
12.54 mL of 0.100 M NaOH

Example 4.14: Information
The titration of 10.00 mL of HCl Given: 10.00 mL HCl
solution of unknown concentration 12.54 mL of 0.100 M NaOH
Write down the quantity to find, and/or its units.

Find: concentration HCl, M

Example 4.14: Information
solution of unknown concentration 12.54 mL of 0.100 M NaOH
requires 12.54 mL of 0.100 M Find: M HCl
Collect Needed Equations and Conversion Factors:

HCl(Ñ + NaOH(Ñ ĺ NaCl(Ñ + H2O( Ñ
1 mole HCl = 1 mole NaOH
0.100 M NaOH 0.100 mol NaOH ë 1 L sol¶n
moles solute
Molarit
liters solution
Example 4. 4: Information
The titration of . mL of HCl Given: . mL HCl
solution of unknown concentration 2.54 mL of . M NaOH
requires 2.54 mL of . M Find: M HCl
NaOH solution to reach the end CF: mol HCl = mol NaOH
point. What is the concentration of . mol NaOH = L
the unknown HCl solution? M = mol/L
Write a Concept Plan:

mL L mol mol
NaOH NaOH NaOH HCl
L mol NaOH mol HCl
mL L NaOH mol NaOH
mL L moles HCl
HCl L HCl Molarity ·

liters HCl
mL
12.54 mL of 0.100 M NaOH
Find: M HCl
CF: 1 mol HCl = 1 mol NaOH
NaOH solution to reach the end 0.100 mol NaOH = 1 L
point. What is the concentration of M = mol/L
the unknown HCl solution? CP: mL NaOH ĺ L NaOH ĺ
mol NaOH ĺ mol HCl;
mL HCl ĺ L HCl mol i M
Apply the Solution Map:

mol a mol Cl
m a ½ ½ ½
m mole a
= 1.25 x 10-3 mol HCl

12.54 mL NaOH
Find: M HCl

m a · Cl
m
1.25 x 10 moles HCl
Molarity · · 0125 M
0.01000 L HCl
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach
12.54 mL NaOH
Find: M HCl
Check the Solution:

HCl solution = 0.125 M
The units of the answer, M, are correct.
The magnitude of the answer makes sense since
the neutralization takes less HCl solution than
NaOH solution, so the HCl should be more concentrated.
Gas Evolving Reactions
Some reactions form a gas directly from the ion
exchange
K2S(Ñ + H2SO4(Ñ ? K2SO4(Ñ + H2S(Ñ
Other reactions form a gas by the decomposition of one
of the ion exchange products into a gas and water
K2SO3(Ñ + H2SO4(Ñ ? K2SO4(Ñ + H2SO3(Ñ
H2SO3 ? H2O( Ñ + SO2(Ñ

NaHCO3(Ñ + HCl(Ñ ? NaCl(Ñ + CO2(Ñ + H2O( Ñ

Compounds that Undergo
Gas Evolving Reactions

& /
0 x
" . x
1

metalnS, acid H2S no H2S K2S(Ñ + 2HCl(Ñ ?
metal HS 2KCl(Ñ + H2S(Ñ
metalnCO3, acid H2CO3 yes CO2 K2CO3(Ñ + 2HCl(Ñ ?
metal HCO3 2KCl(Ñ + CO2(Ñ + H2O( Ñ
metalnSO3 acid H2SO3 yes SO2 K2SO3(Ñ + 2HCl(Ñ ?
metal HSO3 2KCl(Ñ + SO2(Ñ + H2O( Ñ
(NH4Ñnanion base NH4OH yes NH3 KOH(Ñ + NH4Cl(Ñ ?
KCl(Ñ + NH3(Ñ + H2O( Ñ

Example 4.15 - When an aqueous solution of
sodium carbonate is added to an aqueous solution
of nitric acid, a gas evolves
Na2CO3(Ñ + HNO3(Ñ ?
aÑ Determine the ions present when each reactant dissociates
(Na+1 + CO3-2Ñ + (H+1 + NO3-1Ñ ?
bÑ Exchange the anions
(Na+1 + CO3-2Ñ + (H+1 + NO3-1Ñ ? (Na+1 + NO3-1Ñ + (H+1 + CO3-2Ñ
cÑ Write the formula of compounds
´ cross the charges
Na2CO3(Ñ + HNO3(Ñ ? NaNO3 + H2CO3
3. Check to see either product H2S - No
4. Check to see if either product decomposes ±
Yes
´ H2CO3 decomposes into CO2(Ñ + H2O( Ñ
Na2CO3(Ñ + HNO3(Ñ ? NaNO3 + CO2(Ñ + H2O( Ñ

5. Determine the solubility of other product
NaNO3 is soluble
6. Write an (Ñ after the insoluble products and a
(Ñ after the soluble products
Na2CO3(Ñ + 2 HNO3(Ñ ? NaNO3(Ñ + CO2(Ñ + H2O( Ñ
. Balance the equation
Na2CO3(Ñ + 2 HNO3(Ñ ? NaNO3 + CO2(Ñ + H2O( Ñ

Other Patterns in Reactions
the precipitation, acid-base, and gas evolving
reactions all involved exchanging the ions in
the solution
other kinds of reactions involve transferring
electrons from one atom to another ± these are
called 0

´also known as redox reactions
´many involve the reaction of a substance with O2(Ñ
4 Fe(Ñ + 3 O2(Ñ ? 2 Fe2O3(Ñ
Combustion as Redox
2 H2(Ñ + O2(Ñ ? 2 H2O(Ñ

Redox without Combustion
2 Na(Ñ + Cl2(Ñ ? 2 NaCl(Ñ
2 Na ? 2 Na+ + 2 e$
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach Cl2 + 2 e$ ? 2 Cl$ 8

Reactions of Metals with Nonmetals
consider the following reactions:
4 Na(Ñ + O2(Ñ ĺ 2 Na2O(Ñ
2 Na(Ñ + Cl2(Ñ ĺ 2 NaCl(Ñ
the reaction involves a metal reacting with a nonmetal
in addition, both reactions involve the conversion of
free elements into ions
4 Na(Ñ + O2(Ñ ĺ 2 Na+2O± (Ñ
2 Na(Ñ + Cl2(Ñ ĺ 2 Na+Cl±(Ñ

Oxidation and Reduction
in order to convert a free element into an ion, the
atoms must gain or lose electrons
´ of course, if one atom loses electrons, another must
accept them
reactions where electrons are transferred from one
atom to another are redox reactions
atoms that lose electrons are being oxidized, atoms
that gain electrons are being reduced
Ger
Na ĺ Na+ + 1 e± oxidation
Cl2 + 2 e± ĺ 2 Cl± reduction
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach Leo 89
Electron Bookkeeping
for reactions that are not metal + nonmetal, or do
not involve O2, we need a method for determining
how the electrons are transferred
chemists assign a number to each element in a
reaction called an that allows them
to determine the electron flow in the reaction
´ even though they look like them,

2
oxidation states are imaginary charges assigned based on a
set of rules
ion charges are real, measurable charges

Rules for Assigning Oxidation States
rules are in order of priority
1. free elements have an oxidation state = 0
´ Na = 0 and Cl2 = 0 in 2 Na(Ñ + Cl2(Ñ
2. monatomic ions have an oxidation state equal
to their charge
´ Na = +1 and Cl = -1 in NaCl
3. (aÑ the sum of the oxidation states of all the
atoms in a compound is 0
´ Na = +1 and Cl = -1 in NaCl, (+1Ñ + (-1Ñ = 0

3. (bÑ the sum of the oxidation states of all the atoms in
a polyatomic ion equals the charge on the ion
´ N = +5 and O = -2 in NO3±, (+5Ñ + 3(-2Ñ = -1
4. (aÑ Group I metals have an oxidation state of +1 in all

their compounds
´ Na = +1 in NaCl
4. (bÑ Group II metals have an oxidation state of +2 in

all their compounds
´ Mg = +2 in MgCl2

5. in their compounds, nonmetals have oxidation
states according to the table below
´ nonmetals higher on the table take priority
¦ , x
F -1 CF4
H +1 CH4
O -2 CO2
Group A -1 CCl4
Group 6A -2 CS2
Group 5A -3 NH3
Practice ± Assign an Oxidation State to
Each Element in the following
Br2
K+
LiF
CO2
SO42-
Na2O2

Practice ± Assign an Oxidation State to
Each Element in the following
Br2 Br = 0, (Rule 1Ñ
K+ K = +1, (Rule 2Ñ
LiF Li = +1, (Rule 4aÑ F = -1, (Rule 5Ñ
CO2 O = -2, (Rule 5Ñ C = +4, (Rule 3aÑ
SO42- O = -2, (Rule 5Ñ S = +6, (Rule 3bÑ
Na2O2 Na = +1, (Rule 4aÑ O = -1, (Rule 3aÑ

Oxidation and Reduction
Another Definition
oxidation occurs when an atom¶s oxidation state
increases during a reaction
reduction occurs when an atom¶s oxidation state
decreases during a reaction
CH4 + 2 O2 ĺ CO2 + 2 H2O
-4 +1 0 +4 ±2 +1 -2
oxidation
reduction
Oxidation±Reduction
oxidation and reduction must occur simultaneously
´ if an atom loses electrons another atom must take them
the reactant that reduces an element in another reactant
is called the

´ the reducing agent contains the element that is oxidized
the reactant that oxidizes an element in another reactant
is called the $
´ the oxidizing agent contains the element that is reduced

Na is oxidized, Cl is reduced
Na is the reducing agent, Cl2 is the oxidizing agent
Identify the Oxidizing and Reducing Agents
in Each of the Following
3 H2S + 2 NO3± + 2 H+ ? S + 2 NO + 4 H2O
MnO2 + 4 HBr ?MnBr2 + Br2 + 2 H2O

Identify the Oxidizing and Reducing Agents
in Each of the Following
red ag ox ag
3 H2S + 2 NO3± + 2 H+ ? S + 2 NO + 4 H2O
+1 -2 +5 -2 +1 0 +2 -2 +1 -2
oxidation
reduction
ox ag red ag
MnO2 + 4 HBr ?MnBr2 + Br2 + 2 H2O
+4 -2 +1 -1 +2 -1 0 +1 -2
oxidation
reduction
Combustion Reactions
Reactions in which O2(Ñ is a
reactant are called
c%

Combustion reactions release
lots of energy
Combustion reactions are a
subclass of oxidation-
reduction reactions
2 C8H18(Ñ + 25 O2(Ñ ? 16 CO2(Ñ + 18 H2O(Ñ

Combustion Products
to predict the products of a combustion
reaction, combine each element in the other
reactant with oxygen

|%

contains C CO2(Ñ
contains H H2O(Ñ
contains S SO2(Ñ
contains N NO(Ñ or NO2(Ñ
contains metal M2O(Ñ

Practice ± Complete the Reactions
combustion of C3HOH( Ñ
combustion of CH3NH2(Ñ

Practice ± Complete the Reactions
C3HOH( Ñ + 5 O2(Ñ ? 3 CO2(Ñ + 4 H2O(Ñ
CH3NH2(Ñ + 3 O2(Ñ ? CO2(Ñ + 2 H2O(Ñ + NO2(Ñ

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| 

g C8H18 mol C8H18 mol CO2 g CO2

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 4

  3.4 x 1015 g C8H18

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 10

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 14

 Write down the given quantity and its units.

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 15

 Write down the quantity to find and/or its units.

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 16

 Write a Concept Plan:

 Collect Needed Relationships:

 Apply the Concept Plan:

 Apply the Concept Plan:

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 20

 Apply the Concept Plan:

 Check the Solutions:

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 23

g CuO mol CuO mol 2

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 26

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 2

amount of solute in moles)

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 29

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 30

 Follow the  

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 34

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 36

   1 L Pb(NO3Ñ2 = 0.1 5 mol, 1 L KCl = 0.150 mol,

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 41

ionic compounds dissociate molecular compounds do not

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 44

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 45

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 46

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 4

| |    x

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 48

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 50

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 52

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 54

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 56

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 5

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 58

 an ionic equation in which the spectator ions are

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 59

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 60

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 64

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 66

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 0

 Write down the given quantity and its units.

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 2

 Write down the quantity to find, and/or its units.

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 3

 Collect Needed Equations and Conversion Factors:

 Write a Concept Plan:

 Apply the Solution Map:

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 6

 Apply the Concept Plan:

 Check the Solution:

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 9

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 80

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 81

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 83

|

3.4 x 1015 g C8H18

Write down the given quantity and its units.

Write down the quantity to find and/or its units.

Write a Concept Plan:

Collect Needed Relationships:

Apply the Concept Plan:

Apply the Concept Plan:

Apply the Concept Plan:

Check the Solutions:

Follow the

1 L Pb(NO3Ñ2 = 0.1 5 mol, 1 L KCl = 0.150 mol,

| | x

an ionic equation in which the spectator ions are

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 0

Write down the given quantity and its units.

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 2

Write down the quantity to find, and/or its units.

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 3

Collect Needed Equations and Conversion Factors:

Write a Concept Plan:

Apply the Solution Map:

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 6

Apply the Concept Plan:

Check the Solution:

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 9

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach Cl2 + 2 e$ ? 2 Cl$ 8

2 Na(Ñ + Cl2(Ñ ĺ 2 Na+Cl±(Ñ

2 C8H18(Ñ + 25 O2(Ñ ? 16 CO2(Ñ + 18 H2O(Ñ

CH3NH2(Ñ + 3 O2(Ñ ? CO2(Ñ + 2 H2O(Ñ + NO2(Ñ