Contents

‣ ‣ Body
Membranes Level One • Body Level Four
• Body
‣ Membrane Level Two
structure • Body Level Five
• Body Level Three
‣ Diffusion
‣ Active transport

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Water
Water
‣ Water is essential for life. It is the medium Water (H2O)
molecules
in which the reactions of life take place.

‣ A glass of water contains billions of

water molecules.
The Water Molecule
‣ The most important feature of the chemical behaviour of water is its dipole
nature.

‣ Dipole means having two charges.

• There is a small positive charge on each of the two hydrogens.
• There is a small negative charge on the oxygen.

– Small negative charge

H H
A water molecule has the
molecular formula H2O.
+ + Small positive charge
Water as a Solvent
‣ Water is called the universal solvent as a large range of compounds
dissolve in it.

‣ The oxygen in water has a slight negative charge. The hydrogens have a
slight positive charge.
• If sodium chloride (NaCl) is added to water, the negative oxygen is attracted to the
sodium ions, while the positive hydrogens are attracted to the negative chloride ions.
Hydrogen Bonds
-
‣ Hydrogen bonds involve at least one
hydrogen atom.
O
• A hydrogen atom covalently linked to
an electronegative atom, is attracted H H Hydrogen
to another electronegative atom (often
oxygen or nitrogen atoms). + + bond

‣ The formation of a water dimer* is an -

example of hydrogen bonding.
• A water molecule (H2O) has a slight positive
O H
charge on the hydrogens and a slight negative +
charge on the oxygen. H
• Electrical attraction between the negative
charge of one molecule and the positive charge +
of another results in formation of a hydrogen bond. A water dimer forms by hydrogen
bonding between the positive and
‣ Hydrogen bonding is also important in the negative charges of two water
formation of proteins and nucleic acids molecules.
(e.g. DNA).

*Dimer: a molecule composed of two identical subunits linked together

Plasma Membrane
The Fluid-Mosaic Model
‣ The currently accepted model for the structure of the plasma membrane
(and cellular membranes generally) is the fluid mosaic model.
• In this model there is a double layer of phospholipids (the lipid bilayer).
• The lipid bilayer is quite fluid, with proteins moving freely within it.

Some proteins completely

penetrate the phospholipid layer. Proteins embedded
Phospholipid in membrane

Dartmouth College
SEM images of the middle of the
Some proteins may only membrane show pits and mounds,
reside on the surface or indicating that proteins span the bilayer.
halfway through.
Plasma Membrane

Water loving

Water hating

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JbaScpYu8Vs
 Membrane Structure
‣ Glycoproteins, glycolipids, and cholesterol are also an integral part of
cellular membranes, contributing particular properties to the membrane.
Glycolipids (lipids with Glycoproteins (proteins with attached
attached carbohydrates) act carbohydrates) play an important role in
Proteins that completely cellular recognition and immune
as surface receptors and penetrate the membrane
stabilise the membrane. responses. They help stabilise the
control the movement of membrane structure.
specific molecules into and out
of the cell.

Cholesterol is a packing
molecule and is important in
regulating membrane fluidity.
Movement Across Membranes
‣ The plasma membrane is able to control what moves in and out of the cell.
Glycolipids also have Lipid soluble molecules, e.g.
Some substances, particularly gases, can move through the
a role in helping cells to
ions and carbohydrates, are membrane by diffusion.
aggregate in the
transported across the membrane
formation of tissues.
via trans-membrane proteins.

Some carrier proteins move

substances across the membrane
against their concentration Some substances, including water,
gradient. are transported directly through the
phospholipid bilayer.
Diffusion
Diffusion
‣ Diffusion describes the movement of particles from regions of high
concentration to areas of low concentration down a concentration gradient.

‣ In biological systems, diffusion usually occurs across partially permeable

membranes (such as the plasma membrane).

‣ Diffusion is a passive transport process. It does not require energy to occur.

High concentration Low concentration

 Extracellular fluid

Diffusion Across
Membranes
‣ In any type of diffusion, each type of
diffusing molecule (gas, solvent, solute)
moves down its own concentration
gradient.

‣ An equilibrium is reached when the net

concentration of molecules on either side of
the membrane are equal. At this point, net
movement stops.

‣ Two-way diffusion across a partially Partially permeable

permeable membrane is common in (plasma) membrane
biological systems.
• For example, at the lung surface, carbon dioxide
diffuses out of the blood across the membranes
of the capillaries and the lung alveoli, while
oxygen diffuses in the opposite direction, into the
blood. Cell cytoplasm
 Extracellular fluid

Simple Diffusion
‣In simple diffusion, molecules move
directly through the membrane
without any assistance.
• For example, oxygen diffuses into the
blood and carbon dioxide diffuses out.

Partially permeable
(plasma) membrane

Cell cytoplasm
 Extracellular fluid

Facilitated
Diffusion Gases and lipid
soluble molecules
pass by simple
‣ Facilitated diffusion refers to diffusion that diffusion
is assisted by proteins in the membrane.

‣ Facilitated diffusion selectively increases Partially permeable

the diffusion rate of specific molecules. (plasma) membrane

• It does not require energy because the molecules

are not moving against their concentration
gradient.
• It occurs when a higher diffusion rate is desirable:
• Transport of glucose into skeletal muscle fibres
Integral protein
• Transport of ADP into mitochondria speeds up the rate
of diffusion
‣ Facilitated diffusion may occur via:
• Channels made by pore-forming proteins (ion
channels or ionophores)
• Protein carriers that span the membrane
Cell cytoplasm
 Extracellular fluid

Channel-Mediated
Diffusion Inorganic
ion

‣ Small polar molecules and ions diffuse

rapidly across the membrane by channel-
mediated facilitated diffusion.

‣ Protein channels create hydrophilic pores

that allow some solutes, usually inorganic
ions, to pass through.

‣ Many channels are gated so they can open

and close, thus regulating the flow of ions or Channel
protein
small polar molecules.
• They are controlled by voltage (voltage-gated
channels) or by the binding of a ligand (ligand-
gated channels).
• These channels are important in the activity of
excitable cells such as nerve and muscle cells.
Cell cytoplasm
 Extracellular fluid

Carrier-Mediated
Diffusion Large lipid-insoluble
molecules, e.g. glucose

‣ In carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion,

larger, lipid-insoluble molecules are aided
across the membrane by a Protein carrier
transmembrane carrier protein specific to (glucose permease)
the molecule being transported. changes shape

‣ One example is the transport of glucose

into red blood cells or skeletal muscle cells.
• Note that glucose transport is not universally
passive. In some cells, e.g. intestinal epithelial
cells, glucose transport requires energy.

‣ Facilitated diffusion by carriers shows

saturation. The diffusion rate approaches a
maximum as the carrier proteins become
saturated with solute.

Cell cytoplasm
Factors Affecting
Diffusion Human lung

‣ Several factors affect the rate of diffusion

across a membrane:
• Concentration gradient: Diffusion rates will be
higher when there is a greater difference in
concentration between two regions.
• Distance moved: Diffusion over shorter
distances occurs at a greater rate than diffusion
over larger distances.
• Surface area: The rate of diffusion is greater
when there is a large surface area across which
diffusion can occur.
• Physical barriers: Thick barriers
slow the rate of diffusion. Pores in a barrier Air sacs
(alveoli)
enhance diffusion.
• Temperature: Particles at a high temperature
diffuse at a greater rate than at a low The gas exchange systems of air breathing vertebrates
rely on the rapid two-way diffusion of gases across the
temperature. thin membranes of the lung alveoli.
Osmosis
 Extracellular fluid

Osmosis Low solute

concentration

‣ Osmosis is the diffusion of water from regions

of low solute concentration to regions of high
solute concentration across a partially
permeable membrane (e.g. plasma membrane).

‣ Osmosis is a passive process (it requires no

energy to occur).

‣ A solution with a high solute concentration has a

high osmotic pressure. Water will tend to move
into it from a solution with a lower solute
concentration.
• Osmotic pressure is defined as the pressure that Aquaporin
needs to be applied to a solution to prevent the inward
flow of water across a partially permeable membrane.
• The higher the solute concentration, the greater the
osmotic pressure and the greater the tendency of
water to move into the solution across a partially
permeable membrane.

‣ Some water can diffuse directly through the lipid High solute
bilayer, but movement is also aided by specific concentration
protein channels called aquaporins. Cell cytoplasm
 Hypertonic salt

Plasmolysis in
Plant Cells Cytoplasm

‣ If a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic Plasma

solution, the plant cell loses water to the membrane
shrinks
environment.

‣ The membrane shrinks away from the

cell wall, the vacuole collapses, and the
cell becomes flaccid.
Water
‣ This state is called plasmolysis.
‣ Full plasmolysis is irreversible;
the cell cannot recover by
taking up water.
Wilting in Coleus
induced by water
loss from the cells.
 Pure water (hypotonic)

Turgor in Plant
Cells
‣ If a plant cell is placed in a Cell contents less
Water enters
the cell.
hypotonic solution, water enters the dilute than external
environment
cell causing it to swell. The rigid cell
wall prevents cell rupture.

‣ The cell contents press against the

cell wall creating a wall (turgor)
pressure. Turgor pressure increases
until no more water can enter the cell. Pressure is placed
on the cell wall which

‣ Cells in this state are termed turgid. bulges outward.

Healthy turgor in
Coleus
Active Transport
 Active Transport
‣ Involves the use of energy by the cell to transport proteins across membranes.
‣ The energy for active transport comes from ATP. Energy is released when
ATP is hydrolysed (water is added) forming ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi).

‣ Transport proteins in the plasma membrane are used to actively transport

molecules across a membrane (below).

ATP binds to a A molecule or ion to be ATP is hydrolysed and The molecule or ion is
transport protein. transported binds to the energy released is released and the
the transport protein. used to transport the transport protein reverts
Transport molecule or ion across to its previous state.
protein the membrane.
High molecule
concentration

ATP ATP
H2O H Low molecule
ADP
concentration
P OH
Molecule to be
transported
 Membrane Pumps
‣ Membrane pumps are proteins, which require energy (often as ATP) to
transport molecules across the cell membrane.

‣ The activity of pumps may be coupled, e.g. accumulation of Na +

from the Na+-
K+ pump drives the transport of glucose against its concentration gradient.
Extracellular fluid

H+ Na
+ Na
+

H+ K+ Na
Na +

H+
+
Glucose
Plasma Na
membrane +
Na
+

ATP ATP Na K+
+

H+ K+
Cell cytoplasm
Proton
Extracellular fluid

Pumps
H+
H+
‣ Proton pumps use the energy H+

from ATP to move hydrogen

H+
ions (H+) from inside the cell to H+
H+
the outside.
Carrier
‣ This creates a large difference protein
in the proton concentration
either side of the membrane,
leaving the inside of the plasma
membrane negatively charged.

‣ The potential difference Plasma membrane

created can be coupled to the
transport of other molecules ATP H+
across the membrane.

Cell cytoplasm
Sodium- Extracellular fluid

Potassium Na+

Pumps Na+
K+

‣ The sodium-potassium pump

Na+

is a protein in the membrane that

Plasma
exchanges sodium ions membrane Carrier
protein
(Na+) for potassium ions (K+)
across the membrane.

‣ ATP is used as the energy

source for the exchange.

‣ The unequal balance of Na and

+

K+ across the membrane creates ATP K+

large gradients in ion
Na+
concentration, which can be Na+ moves to K+
used to drive other active its binding site

transport processes. Cell cytoplasm

 Coupled
Extracellular fluid

Transport Diffusion of sodium

ions down their
concentration gradient

‣ Coupled transport is also Na+

called co-transport. Na+ Na+ Glucose
• In intestinal epithelial cells, a gradient
in sodium ions drives the active Carrier
transport of glucose. protein Na+

• The specific transport protein couples

the return of the Na+ down its
concentration gradient to the transport
of glucose into the intestinal epithelial
cell.
• A low intracellular concentration of Na+
Plasma
is maintained by a sodium -potassium membrane
pump.
• The simultaneous transport of two Na+
types of molecules in the same
direction in this way is called a The sodium-glucose Epithelial cell
symport. symport cytoplasm
Endocytosis and
exocytosis
Exocytosis
‣The movement of substances
out of the cell.
‣From the cytoplasm to the
extracellular environment.
‣A transport vesicle fuses with
the plasma membrane and the
junction then breaks down,
releasing the enclosed
materials – wastes, digestive
enzymes.
 Endocytosis
‣ The movement of substances into the cell.
‣ From the extracellular fluid into the
cytoplasm.
‣ Particles near the membrane are enclosed
by the membrane, which then pinches off
to form a vesicle enclosing the particle.
Two forms of endocytosis:
‣ Pinocytosis is the entry of extracellular
fluid and substances such as proteins and
sugars that are carried in.
‣ Phagocytosis is the entry of large
particles such as bacteria and cell debris.
Summary of crossing
membranes
Osmosis is only the movement of water from high
to low concentrations.
Can you answer the following?
‣Why is the plasma membrane known as a semi-permeable
boundary?
‣Which substances can move across the plasma membrane
via diffusion? Osmosis? Active transport?
‣What are the differences between facilitated diffusion and
active transport?
‣What are the differences between simple and facilitated
diffusion?
‣How does the phospholipid bilayer form?
‣What does the plasma membrane contain?
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