Chapter

Chapter 66 -- MOTIVATION
MOTIVATION
Concepts
Concepts
What Is Motivation?

Direction

Intensity Persistence
What
What is
is Motivation?
Motivation?

Motivation
The processes that account for an individual’s
intensity, direction, and persistence of effort
toward attaining a goal.

Key
KeyElements
Elements
1.
1. Intensity:
Intensity:how
howhard
hardaaperson
persontries
tries
2.
2. Direction:
Direction:toward
towardbeneficial
beneficialgoal
goal
3.
3. Persistence:
Persistence:how
howlong
longaaperson
persontries
tries
 Having Little Ambition

Theory X Disliking Work

Managers See Workers As…

Avoiding Responsibility

Self-Directed

Theory Y Enjoying Work

Managers See Workers As…

Accepting Responsibility
Hierarchy
Hierarchy of
of Needs
Needs Theory
Theory ((ABRAHAM
ABRAHAMMASLOW)
MASLOW)

Hierarchy of Needs Theory

There is a hierarchy of five needs
—physiological, safety, social,
esteem, and self-actualization; as
each need is substantially
satisfied, the next need becomes
dominant.

“We each have a hierarchy of needs that

ranges from "lower" to "higher." As lower
needs are fulfilled there is a tendency for
other, higher needs to emerge.” 1908 – 1970
 Maslow’s
Maslow’s Hierarchy
Hierarchy of
of Needs
Needs
Lower-Order Needs Higher-Order Needs
Needs that are satisfied Needs that are satisfied
externally; physiological internally; social, esteem,
and safety needs. and self-actualization
Self needs.

Esteem

Social

Safety

Physiological
 Abraham
Self
Maslow's Actualization
Hierarchy of
Needs
needs
Esteem
Needs

Social
Needs

Safety
Needs

Basic
Needs
Maslow’s Theory and its relation to Organizational Needs

Self Actualization

Esteem

Social

Safety/Security

Physiological ?

Maslow’s Hierarchy Hierarchy

Of Needs Of Organizational Needs
 Self Actualization

Esteem

Social

Safety/Security

Provide Lunch breaks, rest breaks,

Physiological and sufficient wages to purchase
essentials

Maslow’s Hierarchy Hierarchy

Of Needs Of Organizational Needs
 Self Actualization

Esteem

Social

Safe Working Environment

Safety/Security & Job Security

Physiological

Maslow’s Hierarchy Hierarchy

Of Needs Of Organizational Needs
 Self Actualization

Esteem
Community belongingness via
Team based projects & social
Social events

Safety/Security

Physiological

Maslow’s Hierarchy Hierarchy

Of Needs Of Organizational Needs
 Self Actualization

Recognize
Esteem achievements,
Job Titles

Social

Safety/Security

Physiological

Maslow’s Hierarchy Hierarchy

Of Needs Of Organizational Needs
 Provide Challenge &
opportunity
Self Actualization
To reach full career
potential

Esteem

Social

Safety/Security

Physiological

Maslow’s Hierarchy Hierarchy

Of Needs Of Organizational Needs
 The
The Esteem
Esteem Needs
Needs
 There are two versions of esteem needs, a lower one
and a higher one.  The lower one is the need for the
respect of others, the need for status, fame, glory,
recognition, attention, reputation, appreciation, dignity,
even dominance. 
 The higher form involves the need for self-respect,
including such feelings as confidence, competence,
achievement, mastery, independence, and freedom. 
Note that this is the “higher” form because, unlike the
respect of others, once you have self-respect, it’s a lot
harder to lose!
Self-actualization
Self-actualization :: The
The drive
drive to
to become
become what
what
one
one is
is capable
capable of
of becoming
becoming

 The last level is a bit different. If you want to be truly self-

actualizing, you need to have your lower needs taken care
of, at least to a considerable extent. When lower needs are
unmet, you can’t fully devote yourself to fulfilling your
potentials.
Characteristic
Characteristic of
of Self-actualized
Self-actualized people
people
 They have an unhostile sense of humor --
preferring to joke at their own expense, or at
the human condition, and never directing
their humor at others.  They have an
acceptance of self and others, On the other
hand, they are often strongly motivated to
change negative qualities in themselves that
could be changed.  Along with this comes
spontaneity and simplicity.  They preferred
being themselves rather than being
pretentious or artificial. 
Characteristic
Characteristic of
of Self-actualized
Self-actualized people
people cont’d
cont’d

 Further, they have a sense of humility and

respect towards others – or democratic values --
meaning that they were open to ethnic and
individual variety, even treasuring it.  They have
human kinship -- social interest, compassion,
humanity.  And it is accompanied by a strong
ethics, which is spiritual but seldom
conventionally religious in nature.
Characteristic
Characteristic of
of Self-actualized
Self-actualized people
people cont’d
cont’d

 These people have a certain freshness of

appreciation, an ability to see things, even
ordinary things, with wonder.  Along with
this comes their ability to be creative,
inventive, and original.  Finally, these
people tended to have more peak
experiences than the average person.  A
peak experience is one that takes you out
of yourself, that makes you feel very tiny,
or very large, to some extent one with life
or nature or God.  These experiences
tend to leave their mark on a person,
change them for the better, and many
people actively seek them out. 
 Assumptions
Assumptions of
of Maslow’s
Maslow’s Hierarchy
Hierarchy

Movement up the Pyramid

• Individuals cannot move to the next higher level until
all needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied.

• Individuals Maslow
MaslowApplication:
Application:
therefore must
AAhomeless
homelessperson
person
move up the
hierarchy in order will
willnot
notbe
bemotivated
motivatedto
to
meditate!
meditate!
 Herzberg’s
Herzberg’s Two-Factor
Two-Factor Theory
Theory
Bottom Line: Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction
are not Opposite Ends of the Same Thing!

Hygiene
Factors: Separate constructs Motivators:
– Hygiene Factors---Extrinsic & •Achievement
•Salary
Related to Dissatisfaction
•Work •Responsibility
Conditions – Motivation Factors---Intrinsic •Growth
and Related to Satisfaction
•Company
Policies
Contrasting
ContrastingViews
Viewsof
ofSatisfaction
Satisfactionand
andDissatisfaction
Dissatisfaction
 David
David McClelland’s
McClelland’s Theory
Theory of
of Needs
Needs

Need for Achievement Need for Affiliation

The drive to excel, to achieve The desire for friendly
in relation to a set of and close personal
standards, to strive to relationships.
succeed.

Need for Power Bottom Line:

The need to make others
behave in a way that they
would not have behaved
otherwise.
Individuals have
different levels of
needs in each of these
areas, and those
levels will drive their
behavior
 Goal-Setting
Goal-Setting Theory
Theory (Edwin
(Edwin Locke)
Locke)
Basic Premise: That specific and difficult goals,
with self-generated feedback, lead to higher
performance.

But, the relationship between goals and

performance will depend on
•goal commitment
–“I want to do it & I can do it”
•task characteristics (simple, well-learned)
•national culture
Goal
Goal Setting
Setting in
in Action:
Action: MBO
MBO Programs
Programs

Management
ManagementBy
ByObjectives
ObjectivesPrograms
Programs
••Company
Companywide
widegoals
goals&&objectives
objectives
••Goals
Goalsaligned
alignedat
atall
alllevels
levels
••Based
Basedon
onGoal
GoalSetting
SettingTheory
Theory
 What
What is
is MBO?
MBO?

Management by Objectives (MBO)

A program that encompasses specific goals,
participatively set, for an explicit time period,
with feedback on goal progress.

Key
KeyElements
Elements
1.1. Goal
Goalspecificity
specificity
2.2. Participative
Participativedecision
decisionmaking
making
3.3. An
Anexplicit
explicittime
timeperiod
period
4.4. Performance
Performancefeedback
feedback
Cascading
Cascading of
of Objectives
Objectives
Why
Why MBOs
MBOs Fail
Fail
 Unrealistic expectations about MBO results
 Lack of commitment by top management
 Failure to allocate reward properly
 Cultural incompatibilities
 Self-Efficacy
Self-Efficacy Theory
Theory
•An individual’s feeling that s/he can
complete a task (e.g. “I know I can!”)
•Enhances probability that goals will
be achieved

Not to be confused with:

Self Esteem, which is….
Individuals’ degree of liking or disliking
themselves.
Self-Efficacy
Self-Efficacy and
and Goal
Goal Setting
Setting
 Four
Four Ways
Ways of
of Increasing
Increasing Self
Self Efficacy
Efficacy
(Bandura)
(Bandura)

1. Enactive Mastery
2. Vicarious Modeling
3. Verbal Persuasion
4. Arousal
Reinforcement
Reinforcement Theory
Theory

Argues that behavior is a function of its

consequences.

Assumptions:
Assumptions:
••Behavior
Behavioris
isenvironmentally
environmentallycaused.
caused.
••Behavior
Behaviorcan
canbe
bemodified
modified(reinforced)
(reinforced)by
by
providing
providing(controlling)
(controlling)consequences.
consequences.
••Reinforced
Reinforcedbehavior
behaviortends
tendsto
tobe
berepeated.
repeated.
Equity
Equity Theory
Theory
Equity Theory
Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes
with those of others and then respond to eliminate
any inequities.

Referent
ReferentComparisons:
Comparisons:
Self-inside
Self-inside
Self-outside
Self-outside
Other-inside
Other-inside
Other-outside
Other-outside
Equity
Equity Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)
Equity
Equity Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Choices
Choicesfor
fordealing
dealingwith
withinequity:
inequity:
1.1. Change
Changeinputs
inputs(slack
(slackoff)
off)
2.2. Change
Changeoutcomes
outcomes(increase
(increaseoutput)
output)
3.3. Distort/change
Distort/changeperceptions
perceptionsof
ofself
self
4.4. Distort/change
Distort/changeperceptions
perceptionsofofothers
others
5.5. Choose
Chooseaadifferent
differentreferent
referentperson
person
6.6. Leave
Leavethe
thefield
field(quit
(quitthe
thejob)
job)
Equity
Equity Theory
Theory (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Propositions
Propositionsrelating
relatingto
toinequitable
inequitablepay:
pay:
1.
1. Overrewarded
Overrewardedhourly
hourlyemployees
employeesproduce
produce
more
morethan
thanequitably
equitablyrewarded
rewardedemployees.
employees.
2.
2. Overrewarded
Overrewardedpiece-work
piece-workemployees
employees
produce
produceless,
less,but
butdodohigher
higherquality
qualitypiece
piece
work.
work.
3.
3. Underrewarded
Underrewardedhourly
hourlyemployees
employeesproduce
produce
lower
lowerquality
qualitywork.
work.
4.
4. Underrewarded
Underrewardedemployees
employeesproduce
producelarger
larger
quantities
quantitiesof
oflower-quality
lower-qualitypiece
piecework
workthan
than
equitably
equitablyrewarded
rewardedemployees.
employees.
Justice
Justice and
and Equity
Equity Theory
Theory
 Three
Three types
types of
of Justice
Justice
Distributive Justice Procedural Justice
Perceived fairness of the The perceived fairness of
outcome (the final the process used to
distribution). determine the outcome
(the final distribution).
“Who got what?”
“How was who gets what
decided?”
Interactional Justice
The degree to which one
is treated with dignity
and respect.
“Was I treated well?”
 Expectancy
Expectancy Theory
Theory

Ethical Values and

Behaviors of Leaders

Bottom line
• All three links between the boxes must be intact or
motivation will not occur. Thus,
• Individuals must feel that if they try, they can perform
And
• If they perform, they will be rewarded
And
• When they are rewarded, the reward will be something
they care about
QUESTIONS
QUESTIONS