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Basics of Measurement

Unit Conversion
SI Measurement System
Significant Digits
Scientists and engineers often use significant
digits to indicate the uncertainty of a measurement
• Significant digits are digits in a decimal number that
carry meaning indicating the certainty of the value
• All digits you record for a measurement are considered
significant
• Include all certain digits in a measurement and one
uncertain or estimated digit
• Leading zeroes are not considered significant digits but
trailing zeroes are significant. (ex. “067” has 2
significant digits but “67.0” has 3 significant digits)
Significant Digits
• General Rules
– Digital Instruments – Read and record all
digits, including zeros after the decimal point,
exactly as displayed
– Decimal Scaled Instruments – Record all
digits that you can certainly determine from
the scale markings and estimate one more
digit
The International System of Units (SI)
• The International System of Units (SI) is a
system of units of measurement consisting of
seven base units
Unit Name Symbol Measurement
meter m length
kilogram* kg mass
second s time
ampere A electric current
kelvin K thermodynamic temperature
candela cd luminous intensity
mole mol amount of substance
• Most widely used system of measurement
• The United States is the only industrialized
nation that has not adopted the SI system
The International System of Units
• Often referred to as the metric scale
• Prefixes indicate an integer power of 10

Power of 10 Prefix Abbreviation Power of 10 Prefix Abbreviation

101 deca- da 10-1 deci- d

102 hecto- h 10-2 centi- c

103 kilo- k 10-3 milli- m

106 Mega- M 10-6 micro- µ

109 Giga- G 10-9 nano- n

1012 Tera- T 10-12 pico- p

The kilo- prefix in kilogram indicates that a kilogram is 103 = 1000 grams. The
fact that the kilogram is a base unit does not affect the meaning of the prefix
but allows for the use of the kilogram as a unit in the definition of derived units.
Unit Conversion
• Necessary in science and engineering to
work across different systems of
measurement or to express quantities in
different units within a single system
Unit Conversion
• Conversion factor
– Multiplied by a quantity to convert the quantity to
alternate units
– A ratio (fraction) in which the quantity in the
numerator is equivalent to the quantity in the
denominator
– Contains desired units in the numerator and the given
units in the denominator
– The value of the conversion factor is 1

Conversion Factor = 1

  Given
    Units Desired   Units Desired
    Units
Given   Units   •     =   Desired   Units
1 Given   Units 1
Unit Conversion
• Conversion factor
– Using a conversion factor to cancel unwanted units is
similar to multiplying fractions
 
5 7 5  

 ·     =
7 3 3
Canceling unwanted units using conversion factors is similar to multiplication
of fractions in which numbers that factor in both the numerator and the
denominator can be canceled.

For instance, in this problem, you may cancel the 7s – one in the numerator
and one in the denominator –to give a result of 5/3.
Conversion of Units – SI System
• Prefixes indicate the power of 10
Power of 10 Prefix Abbreviation Power of 10 Prefix Abbreviation

101 deca- da 10-1 deci- d


102 hecto- h 10-2 centi- c
103 kilo- k 10-3 milli- m
106 Mega- M 10-6 micro- µ
109 Giga- G 10-9 nano- n

Desired Unit
 
• Megameters to meters: 106 m = 1 Mm or

Given Unit
Conversion of Units – SI System
• Prefixes indicate the power of 10
Power of 10 Prefix Abbreviation Power of 10 Prefix Abbreviation

101 deca- da 10-1 deci- d


102 hecto- h 10-2 centi- c
103 kilo- k 10-3 milli- m
106 Mega- M 10-6 micro- µ
109 Giga- G 10-9 nano- n

Equivalency Equal to 1
 
• Megameters to meters: 106 m = 1 Mm or

Again, because 10^6 meters is equivalent to 1 Megameter, the conversion factor is


equal to 1 and does not change the value of the quantity once converted.
Conversion of Units – SI System
 
Example: Convert 103.2 cm to meters
Desired Unit
=
1.032 m
Given Unit

Power of Prefix Abbreviation


Powers of 10 10

103.2 ∙ 10 m
-2 10-1 deci- d
10-2 centi- c

10.32 ∙ 10-1 m 10-3 milli- m


10-6 micro- µ
1.032 ∙ 10 m
0
10-9 nano- n
10-12 pico- p
1.032 m
Rules of Exponents
•  100 = 1
1.032 ∙ 100 m = 1.032 m
• 10m ∙ 10n = 10m+n

105 ∙ 10-2 = 105 + −2 = 103

6
10
 
6 −  (−1) 7
−1
 =  10 =10
10
Conversion of Units – SI System
 
Example: Convert 0.005 kilometers to centimeters
5
0.005  ∙10  cm
 

To convert among SI units, simply apply conversion


factors using the appropriate power of 10 in
Powers of 10 which the desired unit is in the numerator and
the given unit is in the denominator.
0.005 ∙ 105 cm
The units should cancel, leaving the result in the
0.05 ∙ 104 cm desired units.

0.5 ∙ 103 cm Again, powers of 10 can be interpreted as the


number of places to move the decimal point. In
5.0 ∙ 102 cm this case the power of 10 is 5, therefore the
decimal place can be moved 5 places to the
50. ∙ 101 cm right, giving the final result of 500 cm.

500. ∙ 100 cm 500 cm


Conversion of Units – SI System
 
Example: Convert 519.67 hectoliters to Megaliters
−4
519.67 ∙10   ML
 

To convert among SI units, simply apply conversion


factors using the appropriate power of 10 in which
Powers of 10 the desired unit is in the numerator and the given
unit is in the denominator.
519.67 ∙ 10-4 ML The units should cancel, leaving the result in the
desired units.
51.967 ∙ 10-3 ML Again, powers of 10 can be interpreted as the
number of places to move the decimal point. In
5.1967 ∙ 10-2 ML this case the power of 10 is -4, therefore the
decimal place can be moved 4 places to the left,
giving the final result of 0.051967 ML.
0.51967 ∙ 10-1 ML
0.051967 ∙ 100 ML 0.051967 ML
Conversion of Units
Notes on precision:
• Technically, the number of significant digits
should remain the same after conversion (when
using exact conversion factors).
• Measurements are often recorded to incorrect
precision.
• Alternately, converted measurements are often
rounded to a given number of decimal places in
lieu of considering significant digits.
• Examples: Nearest tenth of a meter or eighth of an
inch
• If the precision of a measurement is critical,
CHECK.
Conversion of Units – U S System
 
Use equivalency of units to create conversion
factors Desired Unit

• feet to inches: 1 ft = 12 in. or

Given Unit

5280  ft
 
• miles to feet: 1 mi = 5280 ft. or
1  mi  
Equal to 1
The same concept of unit conversion applies to US Customary Units. Conversion Factors are
based on equivalencies. Once you have identified the equivalency involving the given units
and the desired units, create a ratio or fraction with the desired units in the numerator and the
given units in the denominator.
Conversion of Units – U S System

 
Example: Convert 17.2 yards to feet

 
3  ft
· ( ) 1  yd = 51.6 ft

1 yd = 3 ft

Note: Technically, the number of significant digits


should remain the same after conversion.
More Unit Conversions
Feet and Inches
 
Tape measures and yard sticks often
measure in feet and inches.
• Convert 3 ft - 7 in. to inches:

  3 12  in . 3
4 (
3  ft − 7    in .     = 3 ft   ·
1  ft
3
)  + 7    in. 
4
 
 = 36  in . + 7   in . 
4
  3
=   43    in .  
4
More Unit Conversions
Feet and Inches
  • Convert 3 ft – 7 in. to decimal feet:
  3 3 1  ft
4 4 (
3  ft  − 7 in.    = 3  ft  + 7   in.
12  in.)
  3 1 ft
 
(
= 3  ft  +  7+ 
4 ) (
in .
12  in . )
= 3.65 ft
Unit Conversions
Between U S and SI Systems
Use equivalency of units to create conversion
factors
• Inches to centimeters:
Desired Unit

2.54  cm
 

1  in . 

Given Unit
Equal to 1
Conversion of Units Between Systems
 
Example: Convert 34.7 inches to centimeters

  2.54  cm
.  (
1  in . ) = 88.1 cm

• Start with the given quantity. Then determine the appropriate conversion
factor. Cancel the given units which are repeated in the numerator and
denominator.

• Perform the multiplication to obtain the result.

• Note that the number of significant digits in the original measurement


was three. Therefore, the number of significant digits reported in the
result is also three.
Conversion of Units Between Systems
 
Example: Convert 17 kg to lbm

  2.205  lb m
.  (
1  kg ) = 3737.48lb lb
m m

Note: The number of


significant digits is
ambiguous in the given
quantity – assume two
significant digits.
Unit Conversion
• Dimensional Analysis
– Sequential application of conversion factors
– Units that appear in both numerator and
denominator cancel
  Given
    Units Linking   Units Desired   Units Desired
    Units
Given
1
  Units   •     • =    Desired   Units
Given   Units Linking   Units   1
• If you do not have an equivalency between the given units and the desired units, you
may use a series of conversion factors based on available equivalencies using linking
units.

• By strategically selecting the linking units, you can create conversion factors that allow
you to cancel the given units and the linking units [click] so that the result is in the
desired units.
Dimensional Analysis

 
Example: Convert 345.7 inches to yards

  1  ft   1  yd
.  ( )( )
.
12  in . 3  ft
= 9.602 yd

Note: The number of significant digits should remain the


same after conversion. However, if the precision of the
original measurement is in question, you may choose to
round to a reasonable precision.
Dimensional Analysis
Example: An American car company has designed a
new high fuel efficiency vehicle that is rated at 55
miles per gallon. The company plans to export the
car to Europe and must advertise the fuel efficiency
in SI units. What is the fuel usage rate in kilometers
per liter?


  L  = 0.264  gal
 
55  mi  0.264   gal
   
1  km
gal .  (
 L ) ( . 
0.621   mi )
1 km
   = 0.621  mi
Dimensional Analysis
Example: An American car company has designed a
new high fuel efficiency vehicle that is rated at 55
miles per gallon. The company plans to export the
car to Europe and must advertise the fuel efficiency
in SI units. What is the fuel usage rate in kilometers
per liter?


  L  = 0.264  gal
 
55  mi  0.264   gal
   
1  km
gal .  (
 L ) ( . 
0.621   mi ) 23 km/L

1 km
   = 0.621  mi
Common Items: Size Comparison
Recording Measurements
• A measurement always includes a value
• A measurement always includes units
• A measurement always involves
uncertainty
– A measurement is the best estimate of a
quantity
• A measurement is only useful if a value
is associated with units and the
uncertainty of the value is understood.
Metric Scale
• A typical metric scale often includes a 30+
centimeter graduated scale
• Each centimeter is graduated into 10 millimeters
The Millimeter
• The millimeter is the smallest increment
found on a typical metric scale
1 mm
The Millimeter
• The next larger marking on a metric scale
shows 5 millimeters
5 mm
The Millimeter
• Largest markings on a metric scale
represent centimeters (cm)
• These are the only marks that are actually
numbered 1 cm = 10 mm
Measurement: Using a Decimal Scale
• How long is the rectangle?
• Let’s look a little closer
Measurement: Using a Decimal Scale
• How long is the rectangle?

You can tell that the length of


the rectangle is between 3
and 4 centimeters.

Because the scale is


incremented in millimeters,
you can also be certain that
the measurement is between
3.8 and 3.9 centimeters
(assuming the scale is
accurate). So you are certain
that the first digit after the
decimal, the tenths place, is
8.
Recording a Measurement
• How long is the rectangle?
• Remember the general rule
– Decimal Scaled Instruments – Record all digits that
you can certainly determine from the scale markings
and estimate one more digit
Best Estimate = 3.84 cm
Recording a Measurement
• How long is the rectangle?
• Remember the general rule
– Decimal Scaled Instruments – Record all digits that
you can certainly determine from the scale markings
and estimate one more digit

Best Estimate = 3.84 cm


Certain Estimate
Since the measurement is certainly between 3.8 and 3.9, you can be certain that
the 3 and the 8 are correct. However, the 4 is an estimate based on your best
guess. This number has three significant digits : 3, 8, and 4.
Example
• How would you record the length of this
rectangle?
6.33 cm
• How many significant digits?

Answers may vary, but a good estimate that reflects the appropriate
precision is 6.33 cm. Other good estimates are 6.32 or 6.34 cm.
The U S Customary System
• System of measurement used in the United
States
• Similar to the British Imperial System of
Measurement, but not identical
Common U S Customary Units
Measurement Symbol Unit
in. inch
length ft foot
mi mile
mass slug slug
force lb pound
time s second
thermodynamic
temperature F Fahrenheit degree
Common Items: Size Comparison
Fractional Length Measurement
• A typical ruler provides
– A 12 inch graduated scale in US Customary units
– Each inch is graduated into smaller divisions, typically
1/16” increments
The Inch
• The divisions on the U S Customary units
scale are easily identified by different
sized markings. The largest markings on
the scale identify the inch.
The Inch
• Each subsequently shorter tick mark
indicates half of the distance between next
longer tick marks.
• For example the next smaller tick mark indicates half
of an inch = ½ inch

1/2
The Inch
• Half of a half = ¼ inch. An English scale
shows ¼ inch and ¾ inch marks.
• All fractions must be reduced to lowest
terms.

1/4 3/4
The Inch
• Half of a quarter = 1/8 inch

1/8 3/8 5/8 7/8


The Inch
• Half of an eighth = 1/16 inch

1/16 5/16 9/16 13/16


3/16 7/16 11/16 15/16
Measurement: Using a Fractional Scale
• How long is the rectangle?
• Let’s look a little closer
Measurement: Using a Fractional Scale
• How long is the rectangle?
• What fraction of an inch does this mark
represent?
1/4
You can tell that the length of
3/16 1/2
the rectangle is between 2
and 3 inches. So the first
inch digit of the number is
certainly 2.

Because the scale is


incremented in 16ths of an
inch, you can also be certain
1/8
that the measurement is
between 2 1/8 in. and 2 3/16
in. (assuming the scale is
accurate).
Measurement: Using a Fractional Scale
• How long is the rectangle?

What is the
midpoint of 2 1/8 5/32
and 2 3/16?

1/8 3/16
We may be tempted to
estimate the length to be right
in the middle. What is the
midpoint between these two
tick marks?. 2 5/32.
Measurement: Using a Fractional Scale
• How do we determine that 5/32 is midway
between 1/8 and 3/16?
• Convert each fraction to a common
denominator: 32 To determine the midpoint on the
scale, convert both endpoint
fractions to 32nds of an inch. This is
 
done by multiplying the fraction by
another fraction that is equal to one.
In other words, multiply by a fraction
with the same factor in the
  numerator and the denominator. In
order to convert a fraction in eighths
to a fraction in terms of 32nds,
multiply by 4 / 4.
Find the average   5
of the two
measurements
Recording a Measurement: Using a
Fractional Scale
• How long is the rectangle?
• Remember the General Rule
– Fractional Scaled Instruments require special
consideration

Are 6 significant digits appropriate???


• 1/16 in. = .0625 in.
• Since the measurement is certainly between 2 and 3 inches, you
•  
can be certain that the 2 is correct.
• You are also certain the measurement is between and . What does
that mean with respect to significant figures? Significant digits don’t
really apply to fractions, so let’s convert the fraction to a decimal.
• The decimal equivalent of is 2.15625 inches. If we assume that all of
these figures are significant, it would suggest that we are certain of
the measurement to the nearest ten thousandth of an inch and that
we estimated the one hundred thousandth of an inch. There is NO
WAY we can be that accurate with a standard ruler that shows 1/16
inch increments.
• Since we can be certain of the measurement to the nearest 1/16
inch, which is equivalent to approximately 0.06 inches, estimates to
the nearest 0.01 in would be an estimate.
Recording a Measurement: Using a
Fractional Scale
• For the standard ruler marked in 1/16 inch
increments (least count = 1/16 in.)
• Record fraction measurements to the
nearest 1/32 inch 2 5 in.
32
• Record decimal equivalent to the nearest
hundredths of an inch 2.16 in.
• Record with your data
– The least count of the scale (1/16 in.)
– The increment to which measurements are
estimated (nearest 1/32 in.)
Class Activity

1 inch = 2.54 cm = 25.4 mm

Go to Moodle and
complete the questions
in the class activity.

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