Subjectivity, Positionality,

and Reflexivity
Just a few thoughts. We need to keep
coming back to this.
 Research
• In research we are always making decisions
about what we see.
• That means, because of those decisions, there
are things we will not see.
• That means that research results will ALWAYS
be biased by the choices you make.
• Part of a researcher’s job is to make that bias
as obvious as possible.
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I know I got the horizon crooked but it just looked better to me with the fence
horizontal.

Buy a fence from Bob’s Fencing Supply

 Research
• A research report is one representation of reality.
• Our job is to give the best representation we can.
• That includes a description of the purpose of the
representation.
• Sometimes there are limitations to the
representation and we have to own up to those.
 Subjectivity
• The perceptions, experiences, expectations,
personal or cultural understanding, and beliefs
specific to a person that influence and inform
an individual’s judgments about truth or
reality.
 Positionality
• I see what I am disposed to see.
• When I see something it means that I do not
see other things. (figure/ground)
 The Influence of Positionality
• Research design
• Data gathering
• Analysis
 Reflexivity
• Since study design, data collection, and
analysis are to some extent a product of the
researcher’s positionality, it is crucial to
research that a researcher makes the
influences on subjectivity as apparent as
possible.
 Reflexivity
• In quantitative research we do this by
eliminating as many influences of the
researcher as possible.
– Attention to validity and reliability usually
presented in the methods section
• In qualitative research we do this by
including rigorous self-reflection on the
research process in the final report.
– It can be anywhere in the report
 Validity

When is research valid?

 Validity
• Research is valid when it is an accurate and
generalizable description of the phenomenon
being investigated.

• Generalizable beyond the study sample

• Accurate
– The study design and execution does not
impact the results
– Instrument validity
 Validity
• Research is valid when it is an accurate and
generalizable description of the phenomena
being investigated.

• Over the history of research we have adopted

rules to establish validity of research.
• Follow the rules and you will have valid
research.
 Research
• An observable world exits outside of me.
• I can use my five senses to gather information
about that world.
• I can apply a logic (rules) to understanding
that information.
 Empiricism

Locke, J. (1689). An essay concerning human

understanding. Retrieved from
https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/l/locke/john/l81u/
• Tabula rasa
• Understanding the world through the senses
• Applying scientific method
 Rules of Research
• Scientific Method
– Formulate a question
– Hypothesis
– Prediction
– Testing
– Analysis
 Positivism

Comte, A. (1856). A general view of positivism.

Retrieved from
https://archive.org/details/ageneralviewpos00comtgoog
• Positivism (after Locke)
• Sociology (empiricism for the social)
 Tenets of Positivism
• What is true is that a world exists outside of
oneself that can be observed.
• What is knowledge is information gathered
through the senses.
• The logic of positivism is analytical reasoning.
• What is valuable is improvement of society.
 Philosophy Terminology
• What is true is metaphysics
• What is knowledge is epistemology
• Logic is the rules of dealing with
information
• Values are axiology
 Philosophy of Positivism
• Metaphysics: a world exists outside of oneself
that can be observed
• Epistemology: knowledge is information
gathered through the senses
• Logic: analytical reasoning
• Axiology: improvement of society is valuable
 s ep
c ist
y si em
p h ol
t a og
e What is y
m
What is real knowledge
based on

How can
What is moral thoughts be
organized
ax

i c
io

g
lo
lo
g y
• Read Ornstein and Levine
 s
Realism ep
c ist
y si e m
p h ol
t a og
e y
m An external
Sense
material
experience
world

Aristotle, Locke, Hume

Both
Natural law deductive
and
ax

inductive i c
io

og
lo

l
g y
 s
Idealism ep
c ist
y si e m
p h ol
t a og
e y
m Unchanging
Realizing
universal
latent ideas
mind

Plato, Berkeley, Many Religions

Deductive
Absolute and
from
eternal
universals
ax

i c
io

og
lo

l
g y
 s
Pragmatism ep
c ist
y si e m
p h ol
t a Interaction og
e Constant y
m of an
examination
individual
of change
with the
world
Pierce, Dewey, James

Relative and Inductive

situational
ax

i c
io

og
lo

l
g y
 s
Existentialism ep
c ist
y si e m
p h ol
t a og
e y
m

Human being as creator of

Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Sartre

his or her own existence

Total freedom of choice and

total responsibility for choices
ax

i c
io

og
lo

l
g y
 Philosophical Research Validity
• Idealist: latent truths are revealed
• Realist: accuracy in interpretation of the
external world
• Pragmatist: results are socially valuable
• Existential: results help individuals make
personal decisions
 The Critique of Positivism
• You can never know universal truth but you can
reject false belief
Popper K. (1959). The logic of scientific discovery.
Eastford, CT: Martino Fine Books.
• Knowledge changes in paradigm shifts:
knowing by consensus
Kuhn, T. (1962). The structure of scientific
revolutions. Chicago IL: Chicago University Press.
 Post-Positivism
• Interpretivism: Knowledge is gained through
interpretation
– The researcher cannot be separated from the
research
• Research can serve many purposes
– Locating rationality in structures of interpersonal
linguistic communication
Habermas, J. (1984). The theory of communicative
action. Boston, MA: Beacon Press
 Qualitative Interpretive Frameworks

Positivism
• Social Constructivism
– Understanding lived experiences
• Pragmatism
– Determining best outcomes
Interpretivism • Critical Theory
– Facilitating emancipation
 Why This Is Important
• Positionality
• How you gather and analyze data is influenced
by what you intend to do with the results.
different purposes—different processes
• You have to be careful that you get the right
study design for the right purpose.
 John Creswell

• University of Nebraska

Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and

research design: Choosing among five
approaches (3rd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage
 Creswell’s 5 Methods
• There are many, many more and many
variations of each.
• There is a continuum of the degree to which
specific procedures should be used with each
method. Creswell tends to be in the middle.
 Narrative Research
• Interpretive framework
– Usually social constructivist
• Purpose
– Examining experience through personal stories
• Data
– The stories from one or a few respondents
– Interviews but could include other forms
• Analysis
– Usually analyzed thematically (coding)
 Phenomenological Research
• Interpretive framework
– Usually social constructivist
• Purpose
– Establishing the shared essence of a phenomenon through lived
experience
• Data
– Exploration with a small group
– Interviews
• Analysis
– Usually analyzed thematically (coding)
– Bracketing (removing influences of prior experience)
 Grounded Theory Research
• Interpretive framework
– Usually social constructivist
• Purpose
– Generation of a unified theoretical explanation
• Data
– Exploration of processes over time
– All possible sources
• Analysis
– Coding categories
– Constant comparative
 Ethnographic Research
• Interpretive framework
– Usually social constructivist
• Purpose
– Generation of shared patterns within a group (culture)
• Data
– Examines social organization through fieldwork
– All possible sources
– Gathering of direct quotations
• Analysis
– Usually analyzed thematically (coding)
 Case Study Research
• Interpretive framework
– Usually social constructivist
• Purpose
– Generation of assertions about a case
• Data
– Examines an individual or a small group usually
– All possible sources
• Analysis
– A case description
 How about pragmatism
and critical theory?

• Narrative
• Phenomenological
• Grounded theory
• Ethnographic
• Case study
 A few other thoughts …

• Hermeneutics (analysis of texts)

– Hermeneutical circles
• Descriptive statistics
– Summaries of characteristics of individuals in groups
• Historical
 Creswell’s General Thoughts
About Qualitative Research

• Time
• Complex data analysis
• Lots of writing
• Methods are not necessarily established for
each kind of research
 Creswell’s Process
• Think about assumptions
• Start reading the literature
• Gather data from a variety of sources
• Analyze
• Validate
• Report in an engaging style