Chapter 5 Review

PLC Ladder Programming

Constraints

• Number of Contacts per Rung

• Nested Branches
• Vertical Contact
• A Non Left to Right contact
 Chapter 6
Developing Fundamental PLC Wiring
Diagrams and Ladder Logic Programs
Relays and their Types

• Electromagnetic

• Contactors

• Motor Starters
Electromagnetic Control Relays – page 130
The PLC's original purpose was the replacement of
electromagnetic relays with a solid-state switching
system that could be programmed.
The programmable controller was designed
to replace physically small control relays
that make logic decisions but are not
designed to handle heavy current or high
voltage.

Electromagnetic relays, such as the

lighting contactor shown, are still
used as auxiliary devices to switch I/O
field devices.
 Electromagnetic Relay Operation
An electromagnetic relay is a magnetic switch. It uses
electromagnetism to switch contacts.

A relay will usually

have only one coil
but may have any
number of different
contacts.
Electromagnetic Relay Operation

With no current flow

through the coil
(coil de-energized),
the armature is held
away from the core
by spring tension.
When the coil is energized,
the electromagnetic field
moves the armature
causing the contact points
of the relay to open or
close.
 Relay Symbol

Coil
CR1
CR1-1 CR1-2

Normally open Normally closed

(NO) contact (NC) contact

Contacts are open when Contacts are closed when

no current flows through no current flows through
the coil but close as soon the coil but open as soon
as the coil is energized. as the coil is energized.
 Relay Circuit Operation

L1 L2
S
CR1
With switch S open:
CR1-1  coil CR1 is de-energized
OFF  contacts CR1-1 are open
R  light R is off
 contacts CR1-2 are closed
 light G is on
G

CR1-2 ON
 Relay Circuit Operation

L1 L2
S
CR1

CR1-1 ON With switch S closed:

 coil CR1 is energized
R  contacts CR1-1 are closed
 light R is on
 contacts CR1-2 are open
G  light G is off

CR1-2 OFF
 Contactor - page 131
A contactor is a special type of relay designed to
handle heavy power loads that are beyond the
capability of control relays.

Contactors are designed to operate

such loads as lights, heaters,
transformers, capacitors, and electric
motors for which overload
protection is provided separately
or not required.
Contactor
 PLC Used In Conjunction With A Contactor

Contactor Pump
power contacts

L2
High-current
wiring
L1

Programmable controllers
Coil have I/O capable of operating
terminals the contactor but they do not
have the capacity to operate
Low-current
wiring heavy loads directly.
L2 L1

PLC output module

 Motor Starter – page 133
A magnetic motor starter is a contactor with an
overload relay attached physically and electrically.
They are electromagnetically operated switches that
provide a safe method for starting large motor loads.

The overload relay will open the

supply voltage to the starter if it
detects an overload on a motor.
Motor overload relay contacts are
normally hardwired in series with
the magnetic starter coil.
Motor Starter
Overload heaters are
connected in series
with the contactor.
If the motor becomes
overloaded they cause
a mechanical latch to
trip. Tripping this
latch opens a set of
contacts that are
wired in series with the
voltage supply and
motor.
 Across-The-Line AC Starter Operation

The
When M the
contacts,
start in series
button is
Low-current The
with OL contact
the motor, opens
close to
control circuit pressed, coil
automatically M energizes
when an
complete the high-current
to close allcondition
overload M contacts.
path to the motor. is
sensed, to de-energize
the M coil
Control and stop
contact the
M also
motor.to seal-in the coil
closes
circuit when the START
button is released.

High-current
power circuit
PLC Control Of A Large Motor Load
When a PLC needs to
control a large motor, it
must work in conjunction
with a starter.

Motor starters are

available in various
standard National
Electric Manufacturers
(NEMA) sizes and
ratings.
Manually Operated Switches – page 134
Manually operated switches are
controlled by hand. Pushbutton
switches are the most common form of
manual control found in industry.

Normally Open (NO) pushbutton

makes a circuit when it is pressed
and returns to its open position
when the button is released.
Manually Operated Switches

Normally Closed (NC) pushbutton opens

the circuit when it is pressed and returns
to the closed position when the button is
released. The abbreviations NO and NC
represent the state of the switch when it is
not actuated.
 Manually Operated Switches
The break-make pushbutton is used for
interlocking controls. In this switch the top
section is NC, while the bottom section is
NO. When the button is pressed, the
bottom contacts are closed as the top
contacts open.

PRESSED
ON
NOT PRESSED
OFF
R
R
L1 L2
L1 L2
G
G
OFF
ON
 Selector Switch (Manually Operated)
Selector switch positions are made by
turning the operator knob – not
pushing it.

Selector switch
Contacts
positions may have
Off Position A B two or more selector
Hand Auto positions with either
Hand X maintained contact
position or spring
A Off return to give
momentary contact
B Auto X operation.
 An Example of a Selector Switch
Used for Motor Reversing

Selector switch used in conjunction with a reversing

motor starter to select forward or reverse operation
of the motor.
 Dual In-Line Package (DIP)
Switches (Manually Operated)
ON Are small switch assemblies
designed for mounting on printed
OFF circuit board modules.

Switch settings are seldom

changed, and the changes occur
mainly during installation or
configuration of the system.
 Mechanically Operated Switches – page 136
A mechanically operated switch is controlled automatically
by factors such as pressure, position, and temperature.

The limit switch is a type of

mechanically operated switch
designed to operate only when a
predetermined limit is reached,
and is usually actuated by
contact with an object such as a
cam.
 Mechanically Operated Switches
Limit Switch Operation

Symbols
NO Contact
Limit switches take
the place of a human
NC Contact
operator.

They are often used in the control of machine processes

to govern the starting, stopping, or reversal of motors.
 Mechanically Operated Switches
Typical Limit Switch Circuit
L1 Stop Forward L2
FWD Limit
F
F R
OLs
Limit switches
Reverse
R
F REV Limit

Control circuit for starting and stopping a motor in

forward and reverse with limit switches providing
over travel protection.
 Mechanically Operated Switches
Temperature Switch
The temperature switch or thermostat is used to
sense temperature changes and is actuated by some
specific environmental temperature change.
Responds to changes in
temperature by opening or
closing an electric circuit.
Symbols

NO Contact NC Contact
 Mechanically Operated Switch
An Example of a Temperature Switch Controlling a Motor

Closing ON

Rising
temperature

Motor
 Mechanically Operated
Switches
Pressure switches arePressure
used toSwitch
control the pressure of
liquids and gases and are activated when a specific
pressure is reached.
Opens or closes an Bellows
electric circuit in Switch

response to a
change in pressure.
Symbols

NO Contact NC Contact
 Mechanically Operated Switch
An Example of a Starter Operated By A Pressure Switch

Closing ON
Rising
pressure
 Mechanically Operated
Switch
Level
Level or float switches are Switch
used to sense the height of
a liquid.
Switch
Opens or closes an electric
circuit in response to a
change in liquid level.
Symbols

Float

NO Contact NC Contact

Two-wire level switch

control of starter.
1. The programmable controller was designed
to replace relays designed to handle heavy
current or high voltage. (True/False)

2. The NO (normally open) contacts of a relay are

open when the relay coil is energized.
(True/False)

3. A contactor is a special type of relay designed to

switch heavy power loads. (True/False)

4. Motor overload relay contacts are normally

hardwired in series with the magnetic starter coil.
(True/False)
5. A _______________ pushbutton opens the
circuit when it is pressed and returns to the
closed position when the button is released.
(a) normally open
(b) normally closed
(c) break-make pushbutton
(d) make-break pushbutton

6. The abbreviations NO and NC represent the

state of the switch when it is actuated.
(True/False)
7. Which of the following would be classified
as a manually operated switch?
a. pressure switch c. level switch
b. temperature switch d. none of these

8. A limit switch is usually actuated by:

(a) hand (b) contact with an object

(c) pressure (d) an electromagnet

9. The device shown is that of a:
(a) Float Switch
(b) Limit Switch
(c) Temperature Switch
(d) Pressure Switch
10. The symbol shown is that
of a:
(a) NO float switch
(b) NC float switch
(c) NO temperature switch
(d) NC temperature switch
 Transducer – page 138
A transducer is any device that converts energy from
one form to another.

Amplifier

Input transducer Output transducer

(microphone) converts (speaker) converts
sound energy to electric electric energy to sound
energy energy
 Sensors – page 138
Sensors are input transducers used for detecting and
often measuring the magnitude of something. They
convert mechanical, magnetic, thermal, optical, and
chemical variations into electric voltages and currents.

Photoelectric
sensor
 Sensors
Sensors provide the equivalent of eyes, ears, nose,
and tongue to the microprocessor brain.
Microprocessor
Optical
sensor

Gas
sensor
Microphone

Probe
 Type of Sensor:
Proximity Sensor
Proximity sensors or switches detect the presence of
an object without making physical contact with it.
 Proximity Sensor Applications
The object being detected is too small, lightweight, or
soft to operate a mechanical switch.

Rapid response and high switching rates are required.

An object has to be sensed through nonmetallic barriers

such as glass, plastic, and paper cartons.

Hostile environments conditions exist.

Long life and reliable service are required.

A fast electronic control system requires a bounce-free

input signal.
 Inductive Proximity Sensor Operation

Barrel type
Block diagram

As the target
moves into the
sensing area,
the sensor
switches
the output ON
 Proximity Sensor Connections
The method of connecting and exciting a proximity
sensor varies with the type of sensor and its
application.

Target
L1 L2

Load

Two-wire sensor connection

 Proximity Sensor Connections

Current-sourcing output (PNP)

Sensor

Control
output
Main circuit

Load Load is connected

between the
sensor and ground
 Proximity Sensor Connections

Sensor
Current-sinking output (NPN)

Load is connected
Load between the positive
supply and sensor
Main circuit

Control
output
 Proximity Sensor Connection To Input Module
A proximity sensor should
L1 be powered continuously L2

Input
module
The use of a bleeder
resistor allows
Proximity enough current for
sensor the sensor to operate
but not enough to
turn on the input of
the PLC

Bleeder resistor
 Capacitive Proximity Sensor
A capacitive proximity sensor can be actuated by both
conductive and nonconductive material such as wood,
plastics, liquids, sugar flour and wheat.

Operation is similar to that of inductive

proximity sensor. Instead of a coil, the
active face of the sensor is formed by
two metallic electrodes – rather like an
"opened capacitor".
 Magnetic Switch (Reed Switch) – page 142

A magnetic switch (also called

a reed switch) is composed of
flat contact tabs that are
hermetically sealed (air-tight).

Magnet
N S
NO The switch is
NC actuated by a
Common
magnet.
 Reed Switch Activation
Reed switch
Proximity motion – movement
of the switch or magnet will
activate the switch
Magnet

Rotary motion – switch is

actuated twice for every
complete revolution

Shielding – the shield

short circuits the
magnetic field; switch is
activated by removal of
the shield
Photovoltaic Or Solar Cell - page 143
The photovoltaic cell, or solar cell, is
a common light-sensor device that
converts light energy directly into
electric energy.

Solar cell

The solar cell converts light

impulses directly into electrical
charges which can easily be
amplified to provide an input
signal to a PLC.
Photoconductive Or Photoresistive Cell
The photoconductive cell, or
photoresistive cell, is is another
popular type of light transducer.
Light energy falling on this device
will cause a change in the
resistance of the cell.

Ohms
20 Ohms Light resistance
5,000 Ohms Dark resistance
 Photoelectric Sensor Operation
Most industrial photoelectric sensors use a light-
emitting diode (LED) for the light source and a
phototransistor to sense the presence or absence of light.

Light from the LED

Light detector
falls on the input of the
phototransistor and the
amount of conduction
Object through the transistor
to be changes. Analog
sensed
outputs provide an
output proportional to
the quantity of light
Light source seen by the
photodetector.
Reflective Photoelectric Sensor

Emits a light beam (visible,

infrared, or laser) from its light
emitting element and detects
the light being reflected.

Diffused-reflective
Retro-reflective typetype
Operating
Operating
Emitter/receiver range
range

Target
Reflector
Through-Beam Type Photoelectric Sensor

A through-beam photoelectric
sensor is used to measure the
change in light quantity caused
by the target's crossing the
optical axis.

Operating
Emitter Receiver
range

Target
Bar Code Systems – page 145

Bar code systems can be used to

enter data much more quickly
than manual methods, and are
highly accurate.

The decoder receives

Diverter the signal from the
scanner and converts
Decoder these data into the
Scanner character data
representation of the
symbol's code.
PLC
 Bar Code Systems – page 145

•Pen Type Readers or Bar Code wands

A light source and
A photo diode placed next to each other in the tip of a pen or wand.
•Laser Barcode Scanners
Laser barcode scanners work the same way as pen type barcode
readers.
•CCD Barcode Scanners
Tiny light sensors lined up in a row in the head of the barcode reader.
Voltage waveform corresponding to the bars and spaces
of the bar code is generated
It measures emitted ambient light from the bar code whereas
pen or laser barcode scanners measure reflected light of a specific
frequency originating from the scanner itself.
•Camera Based Barcode Readers
The camera based barcode readers use a small video camera to capture an
image of a bar code. The barcode reader then uses sophisticated digital
image processing techniques to decode the bar code.
 Ultrasonic Sensor – page 147
An ultrasonic sensor operates by
sending sound waves towards the
target and measuring the time it
takes for the pulses to bounce back.

The returning echo signal

is electronically converted
to a 4 mA to 20 mA output,
which supplies flow rate to
external control devices.
 Strain /Weight Sensors – page 147

A strain gauge transducer converts

a mechanical strain into an electric
signal.

Hopper
Wire type Force Controller
The force applied to the gauge causes the
The load cell provides gauge to bend. This
ON/OFF
bending action also
Chute
sensor input to the distorts the physical size of the gauge,
Control
controller, which which in turn changes its resistance.
displays the weight
and controls the
hopper chute.

Load cell
 Temperature Sensors – page 148
Temperature sensors convert heat into an electric
signal. There are four basic types used: thermocouple,
resistance temperature detector (RTD), thermistor,
and IC sensor.
The thermocouple consists of a pair
The resistance temperature
of dissimilar detector
conductors fused
(RTD) varies
together atin resistance
one value
end to form the
The thermistor varies in
The Integrated
with
"hot" Circuit
changes
or (IC) temperature
in temperature.
measuring junction, with
resistance value with
sensor produces
the free changes in voltage
ends available for or
changes in temperature
current with changestointhe
connection temperature.
"cold" reference
junction. A temperature difference
between
RTD the measuring and
reference junction generates a small
DC signal voltage.
 Flow Measurement - page 148
The usual approach used in
measuring fluid flow is to
convert the kinetic energy that
the fluid has into some other
measurable form.
Electronic Magnetic Turbine
Can beFlow
used Meter
with electrically
Flow
Coil Meter conducting fluids and offers no
restriction to flow.
The turbine A coil
blades turnin at
the
unita sets
rateup a magnetic to
proportional field.
the If
Flow Magneta conductive liquid
fluid velocity andflows
are
Turbinethrough this magnetic
magnetized field, a
to induce
voltage is induced
voltage and sensed
pulses coil.
by two electrodes.
 Velocity/RPM Sensors – page 149
A tachometer is a small permanent
magnet DC generator which when
rotated produces a voltage that is
directly proportional to the speed
at which it is driven.

Tachometers coupled
Controller ad
Lo to motors are
commonly used in
M motor speed control
Motor applications to provide
a feedback voltage to
Tach the controller that is
proportional to motor
speed.
 Velocity/RPM Sensors
The rotating speed of a
shaft is often measured
using a magnetic
(inductive) pickup sensor.

Pickup coil Pole piece A magnet is attached to the shaft.

A small coil of wire held near the
magnet receives a pulse each time
N S the magnet passes. By measuring
Sensor Magnet the frequency of the pulses, the
output shaft speed can be determined.
0V
 Output Control Devices – page 150
A variety of output control devices can be operated by
the controller output module to control traditional
processes. These include:

Solenoid Solenoid
Control Alarm
Pilot light relay valve

Heater Small motor

Motor starter
 Actuators – page 150
An actuator is any device that converts an electrical
signal into mechanical movement. The principle
types of actuators are relays, solenoids, and motors.

Solenoid Symbol The solenoid converts

electric current into
Plunger
linear motion.

AIR
Coil
 Solenoid Valve
A solenoid valve is a combination of:
 a solenoid with its core or plunger
 a valve body containing an orifice
in which a disc or plug is positioned
to restrict or allow flow
Forward motion of piston When SOL A is energized, the
valve spool is shifted to redirect
Directional the fluid and move the cylinder
forward
solenoid
valve
CR
FWD
SOL A
SOL A

CR
 Stepper Motor
A stepper motor converts electrical
pulses applied to it into discrete
rotor movements called steps. They
are used to provide precise position
control of movement.
Stepper motor control system

Stepper-motor Step
Module translator motor
Communicates
with the PLC and Enables control
responds with of the stepper motor The motor will move
pulse trains one step for each pulse
received
11. Sensors convert mechanical, magnetic,
thermal, optical, and chemical variations into:
(a) electric voltages and currents.
(b) sound
(c) movement
(d) all of these

12. A proximity switch can be actuated without

any physical contact.
(True/False)
13. A thermocouple, when heated, increases its
resistance value. (True/False)

14. The force applied to a strain wire gauge causes

it to bend and change resistance. (True/False)

15. A capacitive proximity sensor may be actuated

by nonconductive materials. (True/False)
16. When a magnetic pickup sensor is used to
indicate the speed of a shaft, the speed is usually
determined by measuring the:
a. voltage output produced
b. frequency of the pulses produced
c. current output produced
d. change in resistance that occurs
17. A through-beam photoelectric sensor is used
to measure the change in ______ caused by the
target crossing the optical axis.
a. resistance c. current
b. voltage d. light quantity
18. Which of the following devices would “not”
be classified as an actuator?
a. relay c. solenoid
b. tachometer d. motor

19. Solenoid valves are available to control:

a. oil flow c. water flow
b. air flow d. all of these

20. A(n) ______ converts electrical pulses applied

to it into discrete rotor movements.
a. tachometer c. stepper motor
b. solenoid d. electronic magnetic flowmeter
 Seal-In Circuits – page 153
A seal-in circuit is a method of maintaining
current flow after a momentary switch has
been pressed and released.
Hardwired Seal-In Circuit
Motor
Start Stop starter coil

M
M
The seal-in auxiliary contact of the
starter is connected in parallel with
Seal-in contact the Start button to keep the starter
coil energized when the Start button is
released.
 Programmed Seal-In Circuit

Ladder logic program

Inputs Output
Motor L2
L1
Stop starter
Start PB Stop PB coil (M)
M
Start
Motor
starter
M
coil (M)

Both the Start and Stop buttons are examined

for a closed condition because both buttons must
be closed to cause the motor starter to operate.
 Latching Relay – page 153
Latching relays are used where it is
necessary for contacts to stay open
and/or closed, even though the coil
is energized momentarily.
L1 L2 Electromagnetic latching
ON
relay circuit
L
When the ON button is
OFF
momentarily actuated, the
latch coil is energized to set
U
the relay to its latched
position. The relay does not
have to be continuously
PL energized to hold the
Contact shown with relay contact closed.
in the unlatched position
 Programmed Latching Relay Instruction

Command Name Symbol Description

  OTL sets the bit to
“1” when the rung
becomes true, and
retains its state when
OTL Output Latch the rung loses
continuity or a power
cycle occurs

  OUT resets the bit to

“0” when the rung
OTU Output becomes true and
retains it
Unlatch

 
XXX Latch and unlatch
coils have the same
XXX address
 Latching Relay Program
ON ON
Latch rung

OFF OFF
Unlatch rung

Output rung

01
When the
When the unlatch
ON button rung is becomes
momentarily
true actuated,
(OFF button the actuated),
latch rung
becomes
the statustrue and isthe
bit (10) latch
reset status
back to 0bit
and(10)
so is
thesetoutput
to 1, and so the
is switched
output is switched on. This status bit will remain on (1) when
off.
logic continuity of the latch rung is lost.
21. A _____ circuit is a method of maintaining
current flow after a momentary switch has been
pressed and released.
a) power (b) control
c) seal-in (d) OL

22. _______ relays are used where it is necessary

or contacts to stay open and/or closed, even
hough the coil is energized momentarily.
a) Starter (b) Contactor
b) Timing (c) Latching
3. The _____ instruction sets the bit to “1” when
he rung becomes true, and retains its state when
he rung losses continuity or a power cycle occurs.
a) OTL (b) OUL
c) XIC (c) XIO

24. Latch and unlatch coils have the same

address.
(True/False)

25. Sequential controls are required for processes

that demand certain operations to be performed
in specific order. (True/False)
26. __________ control requires some form of
feedback.
(a) automatic (b) sequential
(b) combination (c) discrete

27. There is more than one way to correctly

implement the ladder logic. (True/False)

28. For optimum performance the instruction to

the far left should be the one most likely to be
TRUE. (True/False)
29. For the program shown, the motor contactor
will be energized if PB1, or PB2, or the sensor
switch, is closed. (True/False)
 0. For the hardwired relay circuit shown, when
PB1 is momentarily pressed
a) R will de-energize (b) G will energize
c) M will energize (d) all of these