Chapter 7

Entropy
 Course Outcomes
• Ability to acquire and explain the basic
concepts in thermodynamics.
• Ability to apply and correlate the concept with
the appropriate equations and principles to
analyze and solve engineering problems.
 Course Learning Outcomes
The student should be able to:
• Define a new property called entropy to
quantify the second-law effects.
• Explain the increase of entropy principle.
• Calculate the entropy changes that take place
during processes for pure substances,
incompressible substances, and ideal gases.
 Contents
7.1 Concept of Entropy
7.2 The Increase of Entropy Principle
7.3 Entropy Change of Pure Substances
7.4 Property Diagrams Involving Entropy
7.5 The T-ds Relations (Gibbs Equation)
7.6 Entropy Change of Solids and Liquids
7.7 Entropy Change of Ideal Gases
 ENTROPY AND CLAUSIUS INEQUALITY
 The second law of thermodynamics often leads to expressions that
involve inequalities  Clausius Inequality.

The cyclic device

Thermal
receives heat QR
reservoir at a
from the constant TR
reservoir and
supplies heat Q
to the system at
T while producing
work Wrev
The system
produces work
Wsys as a
result of this
heat transfer
Applying 1st Law on combined system:
QR  Wrev  Wsys  WC
    
WC
QR TR
Cyclic device is reversible   Q  T
Q cyclic processes Q
WC  TR   WC  TR 
T T
3 possibilities of WC (TR=+ve):
(i) WC>0  contradict to Kelvin-Planck
Statement (no system can produce a net
amount of work by only exchanging heat
with a single thermal reservoir).
(ii) WC<0  work done on the system.
(iii) WC=0  no work done on the system.

Clausius inequality
Q  equality refers QR
WC  TR  0
T to reversible cycles
Combined
  inequality refers
System
to irreversible WC
Q
 T 0 cycles
7.1 Concept of Entropy
• Originated from Clausius inequality concept :

• The equality holds for the reversible process and the inequality holds
for the irreversible process.

• Leads to the new definition property called entropy.

• Entropy: - A quantitative measure of microscopic disorder for a system/
- Measure of energy that is no longer available to perform useful
work within the current environment.

• Extensive property; unit in kJ/ K @ Intensive property; unit in kJ/kg.K

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 A pure crystalline substance at absolute zero temperature
is in perfect order, and its entropy is zero (the 3rd law of
thermodynamics).

The level of molecular

disorder (entropy) of a
substance increases as it
melts or evaporates.
Disorganized energy does not create much
useful effect, no matter how large it is.
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 The paddle-wheel work done on a gas increases the level of
disorder (entropy) of the gas, and thus energy is degraded
during this process.

In the absence of During a heat transfer

friction, raising a process, the net
weight by a rotating entropy increases.
shaft does not (The increase in the
create any disorder entropy of the cold
(entropy), and thus body more than
energy is not degraded offsets the decrease in
during this the entropy of
process. the hot body.)
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 Changes in Entropy
• Factors: heat transfer, mass flow and irreversibilities.
• Entropy change of a system during a process:

• The entropy change between two specified states is the same whether the
process is reversible or irreversible.
Special Case: Internally Reversible
Isothermal Heat Transfer Processes

Where;

= The constant temp of the system (K)

 = Heat transfer for the internally reversile process (kJ)

Remarks:
This equation is particularly useful for determining the entropy changes of thermal energy
reservoirs.
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7.2 The Increase of Entropy Principle
Clausius
Cyclic Inequality
processes

Some entropy is generated or created during an irreversible process, and

this generation is due entirely to the presence of irreversibilities. 11
 The entropy change of an isolated system is
the sum of the entropy changes of its
components, and is never less than zero.
0 (adiabatic)

A system and its surroundings δQnet
form an isolated system. dS isolated 
T
S isolated  0
gen 
SSgen
where;
SStotal
total  
SSsyssys SSsurr
surr 00
 The increase in entropy principle can be
SS sys ((SS2SS1)) sys
sys 2 1 sys summarized as follows:
Qnet , surr
Q

 surr TTsurr
SS surr  net , surr
surr

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 Example 7.1

A piston-cylinder device contains a liquid-

vapor mixture of water at 300 K. During a
constant-pressure process, 750 kJ of heat is
transferred to the water. As a result, part of
the liquid in the cylinder vaporizes. Determine
the entropy change of water during this
process.

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Some Remarks about Entropy
1. Processes can occur in a certain direction only,
not in any direction. A process must proceed in
the direction that complies with the increase of
entropy principle, that is, Sgen ≥ 0.
2. Entropy is a nonconserved property, and there
is no such thing as the conservation of entropy
principle. Entropy is conserved during the
idealized reversible processes only and
increases during all actual processes.
3. The performance of engineering systems is
degraded by the presence of irreversibilities,
and entropy generation is a measure of the
magnitudes of the irreversibilities during that
process. It is also used to establish criteria for
the performance of engineering devices.

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 Problem 7.23
A rigid tank contains an ideal gas at 40oC that is
being stirred by a paddle wheel. The paddle
wheel does 200 kJ of work on the ideal gas. It is
observed that the temperature of the ideal gas
remains constant during this process as a result
of heat transfer between the system and the
surroundings at 30oC. Determine the entropy
change of the ideal gas.

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 Problem 7.27
Heat is transferred at a rate of 2 kW from a
hot reservoir at 800 K to a cold reservoir at
300 K. Calculate the rate at which the
entropy of the two reservoirs change and
determine if the second law is satisfied.

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 Example 7.29
A completely reversible heat pump produces heat
at a rate of 100 kW to warm a house maintained
at 21oC. The exterior air, which is at 10oC serves
as the source.

i) Calculate the rate of entropy change of the two

reservoirs
ii) Determine whether this heap pump satisfies the
second law according to the increase of entropy
principle.

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7.3 Entropy Change of Pure Substances

• Entropy is a property, thus the value of entropy of a system is fixed

once the state of the system is fixed.
• The entropy of a pure substance is determined from the tables (like other
properties).

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 Example 7.3
A rigid tank contains 5 kg of refrigerant-134a initially at
20oC and 140 kPa. The refrigerant is now cooled while
being stirred until its pressure drops to 100 kPa.
Determine the entropy change of the refrigerant during
this process.

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 Example 7.4
A piston-cylinder device initially contains 1.5 kg of liquid
water at 150 kPa and 20oC. The water is now heated at
constant pressure by the addition of 4000 kJ of heat.
Determine the entropy change of the water during this
process.

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 Isentropic Processes of Pure Subs.
• A process during which the entropy remains constant is called an
isentropic process.

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 Example 7.5
Steam enters an adiabatic turbine at 5 MPa and 450oC
and leaves at a pressure of 1.4 MPa. Determine the
work output of the turbine per unit mass of steam if the
process is reversible.

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 Problem 7.37
A well insulated rigid tank contains 2 kg of a saturated
liquid-vapor mixture of water at 100 kPa. Initially, three-
quarters of the mass is in the liquid phase. An electric
resistance heater placed in the tank is now turned on and
kept on until all the liquid in the tank is vaporised.

Determine:-

• The schematic diagram of the process.

• The T-s diagram of the substance.
• The entropy change of the substance during this process.

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 Problem 7.41
An insulated piston-cylinder device
contains 5 L of saturated liquid water at a
constant pressure of 150 kPa. 2200 kJ of
heat is being transferred to the water by
electric resistance heater. Determine:

• The T-s diagram of the substance

• The entropy change of the substance

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 Problem 7.44
Refrigerant-134a enters an adiabatic compressor
as saturated vapor at 160 kPa at a rate of 2 m3/min
and is compressed to a pressure of 900 kPa.
Determine the minimum power that must be
supplied to the compressor.

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7.4 Property Diagrams Involving Entropy

The T- s diagram The h-s diagram (Mollier diagram)

The area under the process curve For adiabatic steady-flow devices, ∆h is
represents the heat transfer for a measure of work, and the ∆s is a
internally reversible processes. measure of irreversibilities.
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T-s and h-s diagrams for water

Remarks:
Mollier diagram is a useful aid in solving steam
power plant problems.

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 Example 7.6
Show the Carnot cycle on a T-S diagram and indicate the
areas that represent the heat supplied QH, heat rejected
QL, and the net work output Wnet,out on this diagram.

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7.5 The T ds Relations (GIBBS EQ.)
• The T ds relations are valid for both reversible and irreversible processes
and for both closed and open systems.

where
;
forms:-

• The T ds eq (Gibbs eq.) can be manipulated by introducing enthalpy

relationship as shown below:-

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7.6 Entropy Change of Solids and Liquids
• Liquids and solids can be approximated as incompressible substances since
their specific volumes remain nearly constant during a process.

; since

Isentropic Process of Incompressible Subs.

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 Example 7.7
Liquid methane is commonly used in various cryogenic
applications. The critical temperature of methane is 191 K,
and thus methane must be maintained below 191 K to
keep it in liquid phase. The properties of liquid methane at
various temperatures and pressures are in Table 7.1.
Determine the entropy change of liquid methane as it
undergoes a process from 110 K and 1 MPa to 120 K and
5 MPa

(a) Using tabulated properties

(b) Approximating liquid methane as an incompressible
substance. What is the error involved?

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 Problem 7.66
A 20 kg aluminium block initially at 200oC is
brought into contact with a 20 kg block of iron at
100oC in an insulated enclosure. Determine:

• The schematic diagram of the system

• The final equilibrium temperature
• The total entropy change for this system.

32
7.7 Entropy Change of Ideal Gases

substitute by, substitute by,

33
Constant Specific Heats (Approximate Analysis)

Entropy change of an ideal gas on a unit–

mole basis

Remarks
Under the constant-specific heat assumption, the
specific heat is assumed to be constant at some
average value.

34
 Isentropic Processes of Ideal Gases

where;

Remarks
Leads to:- The isentropic relations of ideal gases are
valid for the isentropic processes of ideal
gases only.

35
 Example 7.10
Air is compressed in a car engine from 22oC and 95 kPa
in a reversible and adiabatic manner. If the compression
ration V1/V2 of this engine is 8, determine the final
temperature of the air.

36
 Example 7.11
Helium gas is compressed by an adiabatic
compressor from an initial state of 100 kPa and
10oC to a final temperature of 160oC in a
reversible manner. Determine the exit pressure of
helium.

37
 Problem 7.85
A piston-cylinder device contains 1.2 kg of nitrogen gas at 120 kPa
and 27oC. The gas is now compressed slowly in a polytropic process
(PV1.3 = C). The process ends when the volume is reduced by one-
half. Determine the entropy change of nitrogen during this process.

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 Problem 7.89

Air is compressed in a piston-cylinder device

from 100 kPa and 17oC to 800 kPa in a
reversible, adiabatic process. Determine:-

• The final temperature of the air

• The work done during this process

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 Problem 7.146

Oxygen enters an insulated 12 cm diameter pipe with a velocity of 70 m/s.

At the pipe entrance, the oxygen is at 240 kPa and 20oC. At the exit, it is at
200 kPa and 18oC. Calculate the rate at which entropy is generated in the
pipe.

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 Example 7.19
A 50 kg block of iron casting at 500 K is thrown into a large lake that is at a
temperature of 285 K. The iron block eventually reaches thermal equilibrium
with the lake water. The average specific heat of iron is 0.45 kJ/ kg.K.
Determine:-

i) The schematic diagram of this process

ii) The entropy change of the iron block.
iii) The entropy change of the lake water.
iv) The entropy generated during this process.
v) The type of this process whether it is reversible, irreversible or impossible.
Verify it.

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