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Module 2
Mechanical properties and testing

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 Most of the materials used in engineering are metallic in nature

 Many engineering materials are subjected to forces both during

processing/fabrication and in service

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 Under such situations it is necessary to know the charcterstic of the material

And to design the member such that any resulting deformation will not be
excessive and fracture will not occur

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The mechanical behavior of a material reflects the relationship between its

response or deformation to an applied load or force

 The mechanical properties of materials are ascertained by performing

carefully designed laboratory experiments that replicate as nearly as
possible the service conditions

Factors to be considered is nature of the applied load and duration, as

well as environmental conditions

 It is possible for the load to be tensile ,compressive or shear, and its

magnitude may be constant with time or it may fluctuate continuously

 Application time may be only a fraction of a second or it may extend upto

years

ASTM

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 Materials and metallurgical engineers on the other hand are concerned

with producing and fabricating materials to meet service requirements as
predicted by these stress analyses

 This necessarialy involves an understanding of the relationships between

microstructure of materials and their mechanical properties

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Concepts of Stress and Strain

 If load is static or changes relatively slowly with time and applied uniformly
over a cross section or surface of a member the mechanical behavior may be
ascertained by a simple stress – strain test

 Tension, Compression and shear

Tension Tests:

 One of the most common mechanical stress–strain tests is performed in

tension

 the tension test can be used to ascertain several mechanical properties of

materials that are important in design

 A specimen is deformed, usually to fracture, with a gradually increasing

tensile load that is applied uniaxial along the long axis of a specimen.
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Apparatus used to conduct tensile stress–strain tests

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 The tensile testing machine is designed to elongate the specimen at

a constant rate, and to continuously and simultaneously measure
the instantaneous applied load (with a load cell) and the resulting
elongations (using an extensometer).

 A stress–strain test typically takes several minutes to perform and is

destructive; that is, the test specimen is permanently deformed and usually
fractured

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tensile load produces an elongation and

positive linear strain

Stress σ is defined by the relationship

l0 is the original length before any load is applied, and li is the instantaneous length
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Universal Testing Machine

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Ductile Brittle
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COMPRESSION TESTS
 A compression test is conducted in a manner similar to the tensile test, except
that the force is compressive and the specimen contracts along the direction of
the stress
Illustration of how a compressive load produces contraction and a
negative linear strain.
Stress σ is defined by the relationship

Compressive tests are used when a material’s behavior under larg

and permanent (i.e., plastic) strains is desired, as in manufacturing
applications, or when the material is brittle in tension 12
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SHEAR AND TORSIONAL TESTS

The shear stress (τ)

where F is the load or force imposed parallel to the upper and

lower faces, each of which has an area of A0

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A very different type of stress is obtained when transverse forces P and P' are
applied member

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Shearing stresses are commonly found in bolts, pins, and rivets used to connect
various structural members and machine components

Single Shear

Double shear

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GEOMETRIC CONSIDERATIONS OF THE STRESS STATE

 Stresses that are computed from the tensile, compressive, shear, and torsional
force states represented before act either parallel or perpendicular to planar faces
of the bodies

 It should be noted that the stress state is a function of the orientations of the
planes upon which the stresses are taken to act

A more complex stress state is present that consists of a

tensile (or normal) stress that acts normal to the p-p
plane, and, in addition, a shear stress that acts parallel
to this plane;

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ELASTIC DEFORMATION

STRESS–STRAIN BEHAVIOR
The degree to which a structure deforms or strains depends on the magnitude of
an imposed stress. For most metals that are stressed in tension and at relatively
low levels, stress and strain are proportional to each other through the relationship

This is known as Hooke’s law, and the constant of proportionality E (GPa or psi)
is the modulus of elasticity, or Young’s modulus

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Deformation in which stress and strain are proportional is called elastic

deformation; a plot of stress (ordinate) versus strain (abscissa) results in a linear
relationship,
Stiffness:
material’s resistance to elastic deformation. The greater
the modulus, the stiffer the material, or the smaller the
elastic strain that results from the application of a given
stress. The modulus is an important design parameter
used for computing elastic deflections.

Schematic stress–strain diagram showing linear elastic deformation for loading

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Shear Modulus (G):

Shear stress and strain are proportional to each other through the expression

where G is the shear modulus, the slope of the linear elastic region of
the shear stress–strain curve.

Poisons ratio

When a tensile stress is imposed on virtually all materials, an elastic elongation and
accompanying strain z result in the direction of the applied stress (arbitrarily taken
to be the z direction),

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When a tensile stress is imposed on virtually all materials, an elastic elongation

and accompanying strain z result in the direction of the applied stress (arbitrarily
taken to be the z direction),
Axial (z) elongation (positive strain) and lateral (x
and y) contractions (negative strains) in response
to an imposed tensile stress.

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If the applied stress is uniaxial (only in the z direction), and the material is
isotropic, then εx=εy parameter termed Poisson’s ratio is defined as the ratio
of the lateral and axial strains,

The negative sign is included in the expression so that will always be positive,
since εx and εz will always be of opposite sign.

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For isotropic materials, shear and elastic moduli are related to each other and to
Poisson’s ratio according to

MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR—METALS continued

The transition from elastic to plastic is a gradual one for most metals; some
curvature results at the onset of plastic deformation, which increases more
rapidly with rising stress.

From an atomic perspective, plastic deformation corresponds to the breaking

of bonds with original atom neighbors and then reforming bonds with new
neighbors as large numbers of atoms or molecules move relative to one another;
upon removal of the stress they do not return to their original positions. This
permanent deformation for metals is accomplished by means of a process called
slip, which involves the motion of dislocations

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TENSILE PROPERTIES
The magnitude of the yield strength for
a metal is a measure of its resistance
to plastic deformation. Yield strengths
may range from 35 MPa (5000 psi) for
a low-strength aluminum to over 1400
MPa (200,000 psi) for high-strength
steels.

(a) Typical stress–strain (b) Representative stress–strain behavior

behavior for a metal showing found for some steels demonstrating the
elastic and plastic deformations yield point phenomenon.

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TENSILE STRENGTH

After yielding, the stress necessary to continue plastic deformation in metals increases
to a maximum, point M in Figure below and then decreases to the eventual fracture,
point F.

Typical engineering stress–strain behavior to fracture, point F. The tensile strength TS is

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Tensile strengths may vary anywhere from 50 MPa (7000 psi) for an aluminum to as
high as 3000 MPa (450,000 psi) for the high-strength steels. Ordinarily, when the
strength of a metal is cited for design purposes, the yield strength is used.

This is because by the time a stress corresponding to the tensile strength has been
applied, often a structure has experienced so much plastic deformation that it is
useless. Furthermore, fracture strengths are not normally specified for engineering
design purposes.

DUCTILITY

Ductility is another important mechanical property. It is a measure of the degree of

plastic deformation that has been sustained at fracture.
Is that property of material which enables it to draw out into thin wire Ductility is a
function of temperature of the material, the strain rate, and the stress state.

A material that experiences very little or no plastic deformation upon fracture is termed
brittle

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RESILIENCE

Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed

elastically and then, upon unloading, to have this energy recovered. The
associated property is the modulus of resilience, Ur , which is the strain energy
per unit volume required to stress a material from an unloaded state up to the
point of yielding.

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TOUGHNESS:
Toughness is a measure of the ability of a material to absorb energy up to
fracture It is ability to withstand both plastic and elastic deformation

Plasticity:
The plasticity of a material is its ability to undergo some degree of permanent
deformation without rupture

Ductility and Malleability:

Malleability:
Is its ability to be flattened into their sheets without cracking by
pressing,rolling,hammering etc.
Aluminium, copper, tin, lead

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HARDNESS
Is a measure of a material’s resistance to localized plastic deformation (e.g., a
small dent or a scratch).
Hardness may represent the ability of a material to resist scratching, abrasion,
cutting or penetration.
Quantitative hardness techniques have been developed over the years in which a
small indenter is forced into the surface of a material to be tested, under
controlled conditions of load and rate of application.

The depth or size of the resulting indentation is measured, which in turn is related
to a hardness number

The softer the material, the larger and deeper the indentation, and the lower the
hardness index number

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ROCKWELL HARDNESS TESTS

The Rockwell tests constitute the most common method used to measure hardness

Several different scales may be utilized from possible combinations of various

indenters and different loads, which permit the testing of virtually all metal alloys (as
well as some polymers)

Indenters include spherical and hardened steel balls having diameters of

1/16,1/8,1/4 and ½ inch (1.588, 3.175, 6.350, and 12.70 mm), and a conical diamond
(Brale) indenter, which is used for the hardest materials.

With this system, a hardness number is determined by the difference in depth

of penetration resulting from the application of an initial minor load followed by
a larger major load; utilization of a minor load enhances test accuracy

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BRINELL HARDNESS TESTS

In Brinell tests, as in Rockwell measurements, a hard, spherical indenter is forced
into the surface of the metal to be tested. The diameter of the hardened steel (or
tungsten carbide) indenter is 10.00 mm (0.394 in.)

Standard loads range between 500 and 3000 kg in 500-kg increments; during a
test, the load is maintained constant for a specified time (between 10 and 30 s)

The Brinell hardness number, HB, is a function of both the magnitude of the
load and the diameter of the resulting indentation

This diameter is measured with a special low-power microscope, utilizing a scale

that is etched on the eyepiece. The measured diameter is then converted to the
appropriate HB number using a chart; only one scale is employed with this
technique

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CORRELATION BETWEEN HARDNESS AND

TENSILE STRENGTH
Both tensile strength and hardness are indicators of a metal’s resistance to
plastic deformation. Consequently, they are roughly proportional

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Creep:
Materials are often placed in service at elevated temperatures and exposed
to static mechanical stresses (e.g., turbine rotors in jet engines and steam
generators that experience centrifugal stresses, and high-pressure steam
lines). Deformation under such circumstances is termed creep

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Fatigue
Is a common type of catastrophic failure wherein the applied stress level
fluctuates with time. Test data are plotted as stress versus the logarithm of the
number of cycles to failure

Fatigue strength represents the failure stress for a specified number of cycles.

Impact loading/tests:
Suddenly applied load

Impact test
conditions were chosen to represent those most severe relative to the potential
for fracture, namely, (1) deformation at a relatively low temperature, (2) a high
strain rate (i.e., rate of deformation), and (3) a triaxial stress state (which may
be introduced by the presence of a notch).

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IMPACT TESTING TECHNIQUES

Two standardized tests, the Charpy and Izod, were designed and are still used to
measure the impact energy, sometimes also termed notch toughness

The Charpy V-notch (CVN) technique is most commonly used in the United States.
For both Charpy and Izod, the specimen is in the shape of a bar of square cross
section, into which a V-notch is machined

The load is applied as an impact blow from a weighted pendulum hammer that is
released from a cocked position at a fixed height h. The specimen is positioned at the
base.

Upon release, a knife edge mounted on the pendulum strikes and fractures the
specimen at the notch, which acts as a point of stress concentration for this high
velocity impact blow.
The pendulum continues its swing, rising to a maximum height h, which is lower than
h. The energy absorption, computed from the difference between h and h, is a
measure of the impact energy
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Impact testing machine

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Fatigue
Is a form of failure that occurs in structures subjected to dynamic and
fluctuating stresses (e.g., bridges, aircraft, and machine components). Under
these circumstances it is possible for failure to occur at a stress level
considerably lower than the tensile or yield strength for a static load

The term ‘‘fatigue’’ is used because this type of failure normally occurs after a
lengthy period of repeated stress or strain cycling

 Comprise approximately 90% of all metallic failures and even polymers and
ceramics

 it is catastrophic and insidious, occurring very suddenly and without warning

 Fatigue failure is brittle like in nature even in normally ductile metals

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CYCLIC STRESSES
The applied stress may be
 Axial ( Tension or Compression)

Flexural (bending)

Torsional

Three different fluctuating stress–time modes are possible

a) Reversed:

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Repeated stress cycle

Random stress cycle

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THE S–N CURVE

 Mechanical characteristics, the fatigue properties of materials can be
determined from laboratory simulation tests

Rotating-bending test apparatus

The compression and tensile stresses are imposed on the specimen as it is

simultaneously bent and rotated

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Mean stress;

Range of stress:

Stress amplitude:

Stress ration:

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 A series of tests are commenced by subjecting a specimen to the stress cycling at

a relatively large maximum stress amplitude (max), usually on the order of two
thirds of the static tensile strength; the number of cycles to failure is counted

 This procedure is repeated on other specimens at progressively decreasing

maximum stress amplitudes

 Data are plotted as stress S versus the logarithm of the number N of cycles to
failure for each of the specimens

 Two distinct types of S–N behavior are observed

 the higher the magnitude of the stress, the smaller the number of cycles the
material is capable of sustaining before failure


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For some ferrous (iron base) and titanium alloys, the S–N curve becomes
horizontal at higher N values
there is a limiting stress level, called the fatigue limit (also sometimes the
endurance limit), below which fatigue failure will not occur

This fatigue limit represents the largest value of fluctuating stress that will not cause
failure for essentially an infinite number of cycles

For many steels, fatigue limits range between 35 and 60% of the tensile strength.
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Most nonferrous alloys (e.g., aluminum, copper, magnesium) do not have a

fatigue limit, in that the S–N curve continues its downward trend at increasingly
greater N values

Thus, fatigue will ultimately occur regardless of the magnitude of the stress

For these materials, the fatigue response is specified as fatigue strength, which is
defined as the stress level at which failure will occur for some specified number of
cycles (e.g., 107 cycles)

Another important parameter that characterizes a material’s fatigue behavior

is fatigue life Nf . It is the number of cycles to cause failure at a specified stress
level, as taken from the S–N plot

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FACTORS THAT AFFECT FATIGUE LIFE

MEAN STRESS
SURFACE EFFECTS

Design Factors Surface Treatments

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