1 Building Const 3

BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION
III
HEAVY REINFORCED CONCRETE,
PRE-STRESSED CONCRETE AND
STEEL CONSTRUCTION
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed
Concrete & Steel 3.0
Construction
3. HEAVY REINFORCED CONCRETE, PRE-
Foundations Systems 3.1 STRESSED CONCRETE AND STEEL
Foundation Walls, CONSTRUCTION
Basement Construction,
Cisterns
3.1 FOUNDATIONS
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
SYSTEMS (Deep &
Shallow Foundation)
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
3.1.1 SHALLOW FOOTINGS
Roof Decks
b. Stepped footings
Walls & Structural Walls 1. Individual footings
Pre-Stress Concrete
a. Block or square footings
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor
Systems
c. Slope or pyramidal footings

Heavy Reinforced
Concrete & Steel 3.0 TYPICAL SQUARE
Construction
FOOTING DETAIL
Foundations Systems 3.1
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural Walls
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
2. Combined footings b. Cantilevered footings
Construction • the footings of the exterior and
a. Combined footings interior columns are connected
(supporting two or more by a tie-beam or strap which is
Foundation Walls,
columns) so extended to support the
Cisterns exterior column
Reinforced Concrete
• used where columns are close
Columns to each other such that it is more • used where it is not possible to
Reinforced Concrete
efficient and economical to center the footing beneath its
Floor Systems combine their footings together supported column as in the case
Roof Decks
of columns located at or very
near the property line
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
c. Continuous footings
Construction

• supports a line of columns
• supports all of the columns by
Foundation Walls,
strips at right angles to each
Cisterns other
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks

L/4 L/4 L/4 L/4
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems L/5 L/5
Heavy Reinforced
3. Mat or Raft Foundations • the general classes are:
Construction

• used on soil of low bearing
power where there is a tendency
Foundation Walls,
towards unequal settlement due
Cisterns to unequal loading of soil
Reinforced Concrete
1. Flat slabs of plain or reinforced
Columns • all parts of the foundation are concrete
Reinforced Concrete
so tied together so that they will
Floor Systems act as one and assist each other
Roof Decks in keeping level and plumb
Pre-Stress Concrete 2. Beams or girders with a slab

Pre-Cast Concrete Floor underneath
Systems
3. Beams or girders with a slab

on top
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete & Steel 3.0 4. Steel Grillage Foundation
Construction
Foundations Systems 3.1 • needed to avoid the deep excavation CORE COLUMN
required for concrete footings, to be
Foundation Walls, distributed over a wide area of support
Basement Construction, GRILLAGE
Cisterns BEAMS
•used to give the required moment of
Reinforced Concrete resistance with a minimum of depth
GRILLAGE
Columns BEAMS
• foundation bed should first be covered with
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems a layer of impervious concrete not less than
6” in thickness CONCRETE
Roof Decks BASE
SLAB
•lower flanges carefully grouted so as to
secure an even bearing
Pre-Stress Concrete
•concrete should be placed between and
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor CORE
Systems
around the beams so as to permanently COLUMN
protect them
•clear space between the flanges of the top

layer of beams should not be less than 2”
and should be somewhat more for the lower
layers.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete & Steel 3.0 3.1.2 DEEP FOUNDATIONS
Construction
1. PILE FOUNDATIONS 3) Steel piles

Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction, 1). Wood piles
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
4) Composite piles
Floor Systems
Roof Decks 2). Concrete piles

a. Pre-cast piles
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
b. Cast-in-place piles
Heavy Reinforced
Construction 1) Wood Piles
• for moderately high buildings on
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction, a compressible soil saturated with
Cisterns water of considerable depth
Reinforced Concrete
Columns • are made from straight trunks of
Reinforced Concrete trees, not less than 5” in diameter
Floor Systems at small end for light buildings, or
Roof Decks 8” for heavy buildings
• with an iron or steel cast conical
Pre-Stress Concrete point about 5 in. in dia., secured
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor by a long dowel with a ring
Systems around the end of the pile.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
DRIVING CONDITIONS
Foundation Walls,
• driven by drop-hammer or steam-hammer,
Basement Construction, weights from1,500 to 2,500 lb., with fall varying
Cisterns
from 5 to 20 ft., the last blows being given with
Reinforced Concrete short falls
Columns
Reinforced Concrete • top of the pile protected from brooming by

Floor Systems
putting on an iron ring, about 1 in. less in
Roof Decks diameter than the head of the pile, and from 2-
Walls & Structural Walls 1/2 to 3 in. wide by 5/8 in. thick
Pre-Stress Concrete
• should not be spaced less than 2 to 3 ft. on
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor centers; When long piles are driven closer than
Systems
2 ft. on centers, there is danger that they may
force each other up from their solid bed on
bearing stratum. Driving the piles close together
also breaks up the ground and diminishes the
bearing power. Maximum allowable load on wood
piles is usually 20 tons.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction • top of the piles should be cut off at or below the low
Foundations Systems 3.1 water mark, otherwise they will soon commence to decay
Foundation Walls,
• should be capped, either with concrete, or with timber or
Cisterns steel grillage. The usual practice is to use reinforced-
Reinforced Concrete concrete cap, the method being to excavate 6 to 12”
Columns below the tops and one foot outside of the piles. Concrete
Reinforced Concrete is then placed around and above the piles. Approximately
Floor Systems 3” above the top of the piles a layer or reinforcement
Roof Decks running in both directions is placed. Caps are usually 18”
or more in thickness.
Pre-Stress Concrete • heavy timber grillages may also be used for capping
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor and are bolted to the top of the piles and the concrete
Systems footings laid on top of it.
Heavy Reinforced
2) Concrete Piles
Construction
• used where wooden piles would be subject to decay or deterioration
by the action of marine worms
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns • advantageous for foundations on land where the permanent ground
water is at a considerable depth
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
• are generally reinforced concrete and of two general types: those
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems molded in place and those molded before driving
Roof Decks
• spaced from 2’ – 6” to 4’
Pre-Stress Concrete •extended at least 4” into the concrete of the footing, and where a steel
casing surrounds the pile, 3 to 4 in. of concrete is required between
Systems the top of the piles and the footing reinforcement
Heavy Reinforced
A) Pre-cast Piles
Construction
• are moulded in a yard or if at the site
Foundations Systems 3.1 allowed to cure for 4 weeks before using.
Foundation Walls, • are provided with a cast-iron point, and
Cisterns a driving head is used in which a cushion
of sand, rope or other material is placed
Reinforced Concrete between a driving block of wood and the
Columns concrete in order to prevent the crushing
of the pile.
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
• are often sunk by means of water-jet.
Roof Decks This method is made possibly by
inserting an iron pipe in the center of the
Walls & Structural Walls pile.
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
B) Cast-in-place Piles
Construction
Cast-in-place piles may be formed by any of the following methods:
a) A hollow cylindrical steel tube usually furnished with a tight-fitting collapsible steel core or
Foundation Walls,
mandrel, is driven into the soil. The core is then collapsed and removed, and the steel shell
Cisterns filled with concrete. Thus there is a shell or form for every pile, e.g. McArthur piles,
Raymond piles (this uses a No. 24 gauge shell in which a spiral of No. 3 wire is encased).
Reinforced Concrete
Columns b) A steel tube is fitted at the bottom with a driving point and is driven into the ground to the
required depth. Concrete is then poured into the hole thus formed as the steel tube is
Reinforced Concrete
gradually withdrawn. The driving point may be either a conical cast-iron point that is left in
Floor Systems
place or a hinged cutting-edge called an alligator point which opens as the tube is
Roof Decks withdrawn. E. g. Simplex piles.
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Construction

c) A steel pipe or shell is first driven into the ground. The steel driving core is then
Foundation Walls, removed and the bottom of the shell is filled with concrete to a height of about 5 ft.
Basement Construction, from the bottom. Pressure is then applied to force out the concrete into the
Cisterns surrounding soil as the core is withdrawn. These are known as pedestal piles.
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
3) Steel Piles
Construction

• are concrete-filled steel pipes
made to bear on rock or hard
Foundation Walls,
pan
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
• are generally 10 to 18 inches in
Columns diameter, having a thickness of
Reinforced Concrete
3/8 to 5/8 inches
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
• are driven in sections with a
steam-hammer and, as
additional sections are required,
Pre-Stress Concrete these are attached to the driven
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor section by means of a cast-iron
Systems or steel internal sleeve and re-
driven. When the pipe has
reached its bearing level it is
cleaned out by blowing or dug
out by means of augers or
similar tools and concreted
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
4) Composite Piles

• are combination timber
Foundation Walls, and concrete or steel
Cisterns
and concrete piles
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
• may be composed of
timber piles with
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
concrete coatings held
in position by steel
Roof Decks
reinforcements in the
Walls & Structural Walls shape of expanded
Pre-Stress Concrete
metal or wire netting.
Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete & Steel 3.0 2. CAISSON FOUNDATIONS
Construction
Foundations Systems 3.1 Caissons are cast-in-place, plain or reinforced concrete piers
formed by boring with a large auger or excavating by hand a shaft
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction, in the earth to a suitable bearing stratum and filling the shaft with
Cisterns concrete. For this reason they are also referred to as drilled piles
Reinforced Concrete or piers.
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete & Steel 3.0 3.2 FOUNDATION WALLS, BASEMENT
Construction
CONSTRUCTION, CISTERNS
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction, 3.2
FOUNDATION
Cisterns WALL
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed BASEMENT
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed CISTERN
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed 3.3 REINFORCED
Construction CONCRETE COLUMNS
Foundations Systems
3.3.1 TYPES OF RC COLUMNS
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced-concrete columns may be
classified into two types:
Reinforced Concrete a. Tied Columns
3.3
Columns
• are columns with longitudinal bars and
Reinforced Concrete lateral ties
Floor Systems • ratio of the effective cross-sectional area
of vertical reinforcement to the gross
Roof Decks
column area should not be less than 1% nor
Walls & Structural Walls more than 8%
• longitudinal bars of at least 4 bars of a
Pre-Stress Concrete minimum size of #5
• lateral ties at least ¼” in diameter spaced
Systems not over than 16 bar diameters, 48 tie
diameters, or the least dimension of the
column
• where there are more than four vertical
bars, additional ties should be provided so
that every longitudinal bar will be firmly held
in its designed position
• concrete cover, cast monolithically with the
core, of at least 1-1/2’ (38 mm) thickness.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction Requirements for Earthquake Loading
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
3.3 s/2
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Lo s  h1/4
 100 mm
Roof Decks
H/2
Walls & Structural Walls s  6bd
Splice
Pre-Stress Concrete
allowed  150 mm
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor Ash = 0.3(shcf’cfy)(Ag/Ach - 1)
Systems
h1 Ash = 0.09shcf’c/fy)
h 1 < h2
h2
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
3.3
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed Requirements for
b. Spiral Columns.
Construction Earthquake Loading
• are columns with longitudinal bars
Foundations Systems and closely spaced continuous spiral
Foundation Walls, hoops
Basement Construction, • ratio of the area of the vertical
Cisterns reinforcement to the gross column
Reinforced Concrete area shall not be less than 1% nor
3.3
Columns more than 8%
• minimum number of longitudinal bars
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems shall be six, and the minimum bar size
75 mm should be
shall #5
Roof Decks  Clear spacing
• spiral reinforcement shall consist of
 Larger of 25 mm or
Walls & Structural Walls evenly spaced continuous spirals held
1.33 times maximum
firmly in place by at least three vertical
Pre-Stress Concrete aggregate size
spacer bars. The center to center
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor spacing of the spirals shall not exceed
Systems 3” (75 mm) nor be less than 25 mm or
1.33 times the maximum size of the
coarse aggregate, whichever is larger
• Protective cover for the column s  0.45(f’c/fy)(Ag/Ach - 1)
reinforcement shall not be less than 1- s  0.12(f’c/fy)
1/2” (38 mm)
Heavy Reinforced
3.3.2 DOWEL BARS
Construction
Foundations Systems
• are short bars used to transfer
the stress at the bottom of the
Foundation Walls,
columns to the footings
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
• use one dowel bar for each
3.3
Columns column bar
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems • total cross-sectional area of
Roof Decks dowels should not be less than
the cross-sectional area of
longitudinal reinforcement in the
Pre-Stress Concrete column
Systems • dowels shall extend into the
column and into the pedestal or
footing not less than 50 bars
diameter for plain bars or 40
diameters for deformed bars.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete & Steel 3.0 3.4 REINFORCED CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEMS
Construction
Foundations Systems EXTERIOR SLAB ON FILL

Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Construction SUSPENDED SLABS
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
In general, there are six types of reinforced-concrete floors systems:
Cisterns 1.One way solid slab and beam
Reinforced Concrete 2.One way joist slab or ribbed slab
Columns 3.Two way solid slab and beam
Reinforced Concrete 4.Two way waffle slab
3.4
Floor Systems 5.Two way flat plate
Roof Decks 6.Two way flat slab
Each particular system has its distinct advantages, depending upon the spacing,
Pre-Stress Concrete of columns, the magnitude of the loads to be supported, lengths of spans, and the
cost of construction. Although the arrangement of the plan of a building frequently
determines the column spacing, approximately square bays are desirable. Column
Systems
spacing of 20 ft., more or less, has proved to be most economical, but this, of
course, depends on the type of floor construction to be used.
Heavy Reinforced
3.4.1 ONE-WAY SLABS
Construction
Foundations Systems
• consists of a solid slab supported by two parallel beams, the beams
framing into girders, and the girders in turn framing into columns.
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns • beams are spaced uniformly and generally frame into the girders at
Reinforced Concrete
the center, third or quarter points. This type of framing is called the
Columns beam-and-girder floor.
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems • are economical for medium and heavy live loads for comparatively
Roof Decks short spans, 6 to 12 ft. (1.8 to 3.6 M). For light live loads, 40 to 60 psf,
the spans may be increased, but long spans for one-way slabs results
in comparatively large dead loads.
Pre-Stress Concrete

• main reinforcements run in one direction only, along the short
Systems direction, from beam to beam, hence the slab is known as one-way
slab.
Heavy Reinforced
• For fully continuous slabs, reinforcements are alternately bent up,
Construction usually at an angle of 30 to 45 degrees, at the fifth points of the span
Foundations Systems
and extend over the supports to the quarter points of the adjoining
span. The remaining bars are straight, placed in the bottom of the slab.
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns • For single span slabs the bars are bent up at the quarter points.
Reinforced Concrete
Another method of placing the reinforcement is to place straight bars at
Columns the bottom of the slab and the other straight bars at the top of the slab
Reinforced Concrete
over the supports. If the bent bars are used, bent bars from the
3.4
Floor Systems adjoining bars are extended over the supports, thus providing the same
Roof Decks amount of reinforcement over the supports as at mid-span.
• Temperature bars are also provided running along the long direction.
Pre-Stress Concrete These serve to provide against the effect of shrinkage and changes in
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor temperature and also to distribute possible load concentrations over
Systems larger areas. The size and spacing of temperature bars depends upon
the slab thickness.
• Minimum protective covering for slab reinforcement is 20mm (¾”).

Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
3.4.2 ONE-WAY JOIST OR RIBBED SLABS
Construction
Foundations Systems
For medium span lengths with light or medium live loads, ribbed slabs
have proved to have an economical type of floor construction. They are
Foundation Walls,
not so well suited to heavy concentrated loads as the solid one or two-
Cisterns way slabs. A one-way joist slab consists of relatively small adjacent T-
Reinforced Concrete
beams. When the open spaces between the webs or rings are filled with
Columns clay tile, gypsum tile, concrete filler block or steel forms, the floor
Reinforced Concrete
system is called a ribbed slab.
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Construction Clay tile fillers are generally 12” x 12” in plan with depths of 4, 6, 8, 10,
Foundations Systems 12, and 15 in. The usual practice is to place the tiles 16” o.c., thus
Foundation Walls,
making the web 4” wide. The layer of concrete placed on top of the tile
Basement Construction, is generally 2 or 2-1/2 in. thick. Reinforcement for this type of
Cisterns construction may consist of two bars placed in the lower part of the
Reinforced Concrete web, one bent and one straight, or of straight bars placed in the top
Columns and bottom parts of the web.
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Construction Metal tile fillers are frequently used for ribbed floors. This is commonly
known as tin-pan construction. The metal forms are usually 36” long,
Foundations Systems
with 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14 in. depths. They are placed on centers in
Foundation Walls, such a manner as to make the web 4 to 7 in. wide at the lowest point.
Cisterns Form widths are generally 20 or 30 in.; a common condition is a form
20 in. wide, placed 25 in. on centers, to make a web 5” wide at the
Reinforced Concrete
Columns bottom.
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
3.4 The metal forms may be removed or left in place after supporting
formwork has been taken down. To provide a greater web area near
Roof Decks
the supports, where the shearing stresses may exceed the allowable,
Walls & Structural Walls special metal cores with the sides tapered in plan are used. The
Pre-Stress Concrete degree of tapering generally is such that the web is increased 4” in
width. As in the case of clay-tile fillers, a 2, 2-1/2, or 3 in. slab is
Systems placed over the metal tile forms, the slab and web forming a T-
section.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
3.4.3 TWO-WAY SLABS
Construction
Foundations Systems
When a floor panel is square or nearly so, having beams or walls on
four sides, it is generally economical to use two sets of reinforcing bars
Foundation Walls,
placed at right angles to each other. These bars in two directions
Cisterns transfer the loads to the four supporting beams or walls. Slabs thus
Reinforced Concrete
reinforced are known as two way slabs or slabs supported on four
Columns sides.
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems For square panels, with supports of equal rigidity, the live and dead
Roof Decks loads are distributed equally in both directions and the reinforcements
are the same each way. When the panel is oblong or rectangular, the
greater part of the load is transmitted by the transverse or short
Pre-Stress Concrete reinforcement. If the length of the slab exceeds 1.5 times its width, the
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor entire load is usually assumed to be carried by the short reinforcement,
Systems and the long reinforcement used for shrinkage and temperature
reinforcement only; hence the slab would become a one-way slab.
Heavy Reinforced
REBAR PLACEMENT
Construction
Foundations Systems
In determining the reinforcement of two-way slabs two strips of floor are
considered. One is middle strip, one half of the panel in width,
Foundation Walls,
symmetrical about the panel center line, and extending through the
Cisterns length of the panel. The other is the column strip, one half of the panel
Reinforced Concrete
in width and occupying the two quarter-panel areas outside the middle
Columns strip. In placing the reinforcement it is advantageous to place the bars in
Reinforced Concrete
the short direction, carrying the greater load, under the longer bars.
3.4
Floor Systems Bars are bent up at fifth points and extend over the supports of the
Roof Decks quarter points of the adjoining slabs as is done for one-way slabs.
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
3.4.4 TWO WAY WAFFLE SLAB
Construction
Foundations Systems
A waffle slab is a two way concrete slab reinforced by ribs in two
directions. Waffle slabs are able to carry heavier loads and span longer
Foundation Walls,
distances than flat slabs.
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
3.4.5 TWO WAY FLAT PLATE
Construction
Foundations Systems
A flat plate is a concrete slab of uniform thickness reinforced in two or
more directions and supported directly by columns without beams or
Foundation Walls,
girders. Simplicity of forming, lower floor-to-floor heights, and some
Cisterns flexibility in column placement make flat plates practical for apartment
Reinforced Concrete
and hotel construction.
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
3.4.6 TWO WAY FLAT SLAB
Construction
Foundations Systems
A flat-slab is a flat plate thickened at its column supports to increase its
shear strength and moment-resisting capacity. The slab is commonly
Foundation Walls,
reinforced with bars running in two directions. This area of increased
Cisterns thickness is called a drop panel or drop. The columns are generally
Reinforced Concrete
square in cross section, but rectangular or circular cross sections are
Columns also used.
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Advantages of the Flat-slab Floor:
Construction
• economical in use of material and provide a rigid type of construction
Foundations Systems • suitable for industrial buildings having large live loads and for buildings in which
Foundation Walls, the columns capitals are not objectionable
Basement Construction, • use of simplified formwork
Cisterns • better lighting due to the absence of beams and girders
Reinforced Concrete • a saving in height for given clear story heights
Columns • a uniform surface for suspending sprinkler systems, piping and shafting,and,
• because of the absence of sharp corners, better resistance to fire.
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Size Requirements of the Flat-slab Floor:
Roof Decks
Walls & Structural Walls • ratio of length to width of flat-slab panels should not exceed 1.33
• thickness of slab through drop panel, if any, shall not be less than L/36;
Pre-Stress Concrete
thickness of slab with drop panels at points beyond the drop panel should not be
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor less than L/40
Systems • side of diameter of the drop panel shall be at least 0.33 times the span in the
parallel direction
• diameter of the column capital measured at the bottom of the slab or drop
panel (in feet) is generally taken between 0.20 and 0.25 L
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Reinforcements of Flat-slabs:
Foundations Systems
1. Two-way system. This system is the most commonly used and
Foundation Walls,
consists of two sets of bars extending directly from column to column in
Cisterns both directions. Slabs are square or rectangular.
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
2. Three-way system. The reinforcement extends from column to column,
the columns being placed at the corners of equilateral triangles; hence
Reinforced Concrete slabs are triangular in shape.
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks 3. Four-way system. The reinforcement extends both directly and
diagonally between columns in both directions. The slabs are square or
rectangular.
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
3.4.7 LIFT SLABS
Construction
A building method for multi-story sitecast concrete buildings that
Foundations Systems casts all the slabs in a stack on the ground and then lifts them
Foundation Walls, up the columns and welds them into place.
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete 1 2 3
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks 1
Pre-Stress Concrete
2
Systems
3
Heavy Reinforced
BEAMS IN GENERAL
Construction
Foundations Systems
A beam may be defined as a structural member, resting on supports
usually at its ends, which supports transverse loads. The loads that act
Foundation Walls,
on the beam, as well as the weight of the beam itself, tend to bend
Cisterns rather than lengthen or shorten it. A girder is a term applied to a beam
Reinforced Concrete
that supports one or smaller beams.
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Requirements for Earthquake Loading
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction,  d/4
Cisterns 50 mm
s  8db (longitudinal bars)
Reinforced Concrete
Columns  24db (hoops)
Reinforced Concrete  300 mm
3.4
Floor Systems
Roof Decks

H
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
2H s  d/2
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete & Steel 3.0 Classifications of Beams
Construction
According to Use:
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls, a. Simple beams. These are c. Continuous beams. These are
Basement Construction, beams having a single span with beams resting on more than two
Cisterns
a support at each end, there supports. The term “semi-
Reinforced Concrete being no restraint at the continuous” is also frequently
Columns
supports. used in reinforced-concrete. It
Reinforced Concrete refers to a beam having two
3.4
Floor Systems
b. Cantilever beams. These are spans with little or no restraint at
Roof Decks beams that are supported at one the two extreme ends of the
Walls & Structural Walls end only, or they may be that beam. The end span of a
portion of beams projecting continuous beam, where little or
Pre-Stress Concrete
beyond one of its supports. restraint is provided at the end
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor support, is also referred to as a
Systems
semi-continuous beam.
Heavy Reinforced
3.4.8 REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS
Construction
Beam Loading and Internal Stresses:
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls, When a beam is subjected to a given load, the beam reacts inn the following
manner:
Cisterns
• At midspan; it is bent downwards, the lower part of the beam is in tension,
Reinforced Concrete and is resisted by the steel; while the upper part is in compression and is
Columns resisted by concrete.
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems • At the supports, the upper surface of the beam becomes concave downward;
that is, there is a reversal of stresses. The upper portion of the beam is now in
Roof Decks
tension ( or the bending moment is said to change from positive to negative).
• The section of a beam at which the bending moment changes from positive
Pre-Stress Concrete
to negative is called the point of inflection.
Systems • The exact position of inflection points depends upon the position and
magnitude of the loads as well as the end conditions of the beams. For
continuous beams having equal spans and uniformly distributed loads, the
inflection point is considered to be one-fifth the clear span between faces of
support.
Heavy Reinforced
Rebar Placement:
Construction
• Bent-up Method: At the inflection point some of the reinforcing bars are bent
Foundations Systems up at an angle of from 30 to 45 degrees and extend over the supports into the
Foundation Walls, adjacent spans. The bent up bars serve to resist the tensile stresses over the
Basement Construction, supports. Thus for continuous beams with uniformly distributed loads the bars
Cisterns would be bent up at one-fifth the clear span from the face of the supports and
Reinforced Concrete extend to the quarter points of the adjacent span. Not more than half of the
Columns bars should be bent up; the rest of the reinforcement extends straight through
the center of the supports.
Reinforced Concrete
3.4
Floor Systems
• Straight Method: Another method is to use separate straight bars in both the
Roof Decks bottoms and tops of the beams in place of bent bars. The slight cost in excess
Walls & Structural Walls weight in this arrangement over the combination of straight and bent bars is
probably balanced by the ease of preparing design and shop drawings, bill of
Pre-Stress Concrete
materials, and fabrication and placing of reinforcement. Bars not fabricated
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor according to drawings, or those lost and mislaid, are more easily replaced if no
Systems bending is involved.
Heavy Reinforced
Diagonal Tension in Beams:
Construction
• In addition to the tensile and compressive stresses in a beam subjected to
Foundations Systems bending, there are also inclined tensile stresses. If a concrete beam is
Foundation Walls, reinforced with longitudinal steel only, these diagonal stresses tend to produce
Basement Construction, cracks which are vertical at the center of the span and become more inclined
Cisterns as they approach the support where they slope towards the center at an angle
Reinforced Concrete of about 45. The stresses that cause these cracks are known as diagonal
Columns tension.
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
3.4 • To prevent failure due to diagonal tension additional reinforcing bars are
used. Sloping bars placed at right angles to the direction of these cracks
Roof Decks would be one method of reinforcing for diagonal tension, but, although this is
Walls & Structural Walls sometimes done, it is not the most economical method.
Pre-Stress Concrete •The usual procedure is to add #3 or #4 bars, bent in the shape of the letter U,
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor in vertical positions at those points along the beam length at which the
Systems diagonal tension stresses require their use. When the stresses are sufficiently
large. W-shaped bars are used. These bent reinforcing bars are called
stirrups. They should always have hooks at the ends to provide anchorage to
resist the tensile stresses.
Heavy Reinforced
Shearing Stresses in Beams:
Construction
Reinforcement used to resist shearing stresses is known as web
Foundations Systems reinforcement. Ties are frequently used for web reinforcement in place of
Foundation Walls, stirrups. A tie is generally made of #3 bars, but it completely encircles the
Basement Construction, longitudinal tensile steel instead of being U-shaped with hooks. These are
Cisterns called closed stirrups or ties.
Reinforced Concrete
Columns Rebar Spacing:
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
3.4 • Although it is occasionally necessary to put in two or more layers of steel,
particularly in large girders carrying heavy loads, it is usually more
Roof Decks economical to slightly widen a beam, thereby permitting all of the main tensile
Walls & Structural Walls reinforcement to lie in the same plane.
Pre-Stress Concrete • Minimum clear distance between bars should not be less than the nominal
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor diameters of the bars, not less than 1”, nor less than 1-1/2 times the
Systems maximum size of the coarse aggregate.
• If more than one layer is used the clear vertical distance between layers
shall not be less than 1”, and the bars in the upper layer shall be placed
directly above those in the bottom layer.
•Fireproofing for beams and walls is 1-1/2” (38 mm).

Heavy Reinforced
3.4.9 TYPES OF REINFORCED
Construction CONCRETE BEAMS
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls, 1. Rectangular beams

Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete 2. T – beams. When a reinforced concrete

Columns floor slab and its supporting beam (or
girder) are built at the same time and
Reinforced Concrete
3.4 thoroughly tied together, a part of the slab
Floor Systems
may be considered to act with upper part
Roof Decks of the beam in compression. This form of a
beam is called a T- beam.
Pre-Stress Concrete
3. Beam with Compression Reinforcement.
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor These are beams with reinforcement in the
Systems compression as well as the tension side of
the beam, hence they are also called
double reinforced beams. In this type of
beam no bent up bars are required. Beams
with compression reinforcement are used
when the cross-sectional dimensions of
the beam are limited by architectural or
structural conditions so that there is an
insufficient concrete area for the
compressive stresses.
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete, Pre-Stressed 4. Cantilever Beams. The tensile
reinforcement is located at top of the
Construction
beam and inverted U-stirrups are
Foundations Systems provided.
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns 5. Hollow box girders. These are double
reinforced beams used for long spans. In
Reinforced Concrete order to reduce the dead load (the
3.4
Floor Systems weight of the beam) it is hollowed in the
center of the section. Diaphragms are
Roof Decks
provided at intervals throughout the
Walls & Structural Walls length of the beam. Truss
Main Reinforcements
(X-bars)
Pre-Stress Concrete
Z-bars
Systems
6. Beam Brackets (Corbels). Short beam
Y-bars
extensions from columns used to support
X-bars Z-bars
rafters or trusses.
Y-bars Y&Z
-bars
Corbel
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete & Steel 3.0 3.5 ROOF DECKS
Construction
Foundations Systems Reinforced concrete roof slabs (roof decks) are formed and sitecast in
Foundation Walls,
the same manner as concrete floor systems. Roof decks are normally
Basement Construction, covered with a type of membrane roofing for insulation and
Cisterns waterproofing.
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks 3.5
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks 3.5
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete & Steel 3.0 3.6 WALLS AND STRUCTURAL WALLS
Construction
Foundations Systems 3.6.1 TYPES OF WALLS

Foundation Walls,
Basement Construction, 1. Bearing wall. A wall on which either floor or roof construction rests.
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete 2. Curtain wall. The enclosing wall of an iron or steel framework or the
Columns non-bearing portion of an enclosing wall between piers.
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
3. Foundation wall. That portion of an enclosing wall below the first tier
Roof Decks of joists.
Walls & Structural Walls 3.6
4. Retaining wall. A subsurface wall built to resist the lateral pressure of
Pre-Stress Concrete
internal loads.
Systems
5. Spandrel wall. The space between any arch and the beam over the
same; or an exterior non-bearing wall in skeleton construction built
between columns or piers and wholly supported at each story.
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
3.6.2 CURTAIN WALLS
Construction
Foundations Systems
1. Panel walls are exterior non-load bearing walls whose outer surface
may or may not form the exterior facing of the building and whose
Foundation Walls,
interior surface may or may not form the interior finish. It may rest on
Cisterns the building structure or may be hung from the structure.
Reinforced Concrete
Columns Masonry panel walls are exterior non-load bearing walls whose outer
Reinforced Concrete
surface may form the exterior building face or it may be used as a back-
Floor Systems up wall of a panel curtain wall.
Roof Decks a) Stone Masonry Panels
b) Pre-cast Masonry Panels
Pre-Stress Concrete 2. Panel curtain walls are exterior non-load bearing walls made up of
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor panels attached directly to the building structure with an adjustable
Systems attachment or mounted on supports (subframe), which in turn, are
attached to the building structure by adjustable attachments. Exterior
face of panels form the face of the building; interior face may or may not
form the interior finish.
Heavy Reinforced
TYPES OF MASONRY PANEL WALLS
Construction
Foundations Systems
a) Stone Masonry Panels. Natural or artificial stone slabs which are
anchored to the building structure by masonry anchors
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
b) Pre-cast Masonry Panel. Ordinary reinforced or pre-stressed
Construction concrete wall units which may be one or several stories high
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
TYPES OF PANEL CURTAIN WALLS
Construction
1. Stick System. The Stick System refers to the method of installation where the
Foundations Systems
mullions and horizontal rails (gutter section and window sill section) are installed
Foundation Walls, first before installation of the window and wall panels. In terms of appearance it
is called the Unit and Mullion System.
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
2. Unit and Mullion System. The Unit and Mullion System refers to
the wall’s appearance where the supports (or the mullions) are
Foundations Systems
clearly expressed. Vertical lines are therefore dominant.
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
3. Unit System (Grid Type System). The Grid Type System also refers to the
Construction method of installation where the frames, both mullions and rails are installed first
and are equally dominantly expressed. In the Unit System wall panels come as
Foundations Systems preassembled framed units where the supports (vertical and horizontal
Foundation Walls, members) are clearly expressed. Vertical and horizontal lines equally dominant
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
4. Panel System (Sheathed Type). Supports not expressed. Non-lineal pattern.
Construction Joints vertical and horizontal usually without trim.
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
5. Spandrel System. The supports are not a primary element of expression in
Construction this type of wall. Horizontal lines are dominant and the length of spandrel is
unlimited.
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
3.6.3 PRESSURE EQUALIZED DESIGN FOR CURTAIN WALLS
Construction
Foundations Systems
Pressure differential between the outside atmosphere and an interior
environment can cause rainwater to migrate through even the smallest
Foundation Walls,
openings in wall joints. Pressure-equalized design can significantly
Cisterns reduce this cause of water leakage in wall construction by employing
Reinforced Concrete
the rainscreen principle.
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
TYPES OF METAL PANELS
Construction
Foundations Systems
1. Skin type panel. Panel made up of one material
Foundation Walls,
2. Sandwich type panel. Panel made up of assembly of several
Cisterns materials
Reinforced Concrete
a. Open Sandwich type. Sandwich panel with top and bottom
Columns edges closed
Reinforced Concrete
b. Closed Sandwich type. Sandwich panel in which all edges of
Floor Systems panel are closed except for weep holes and vents
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
3.6.4 RETAINING WALLS, BREAST WALLS & VAULT WALLS
Construction
Foundations Systems
A retaining wall is a wall whose purpose is to resist the thrust of a bank
of earth or other material. It is differentiated from breast walls which is
Foundation Walls,
similar to the retaining wall, in that in the retaining the earth or other
Cisterns filling is deposited behind it after it is built, while the breast wall (or face
Reinforced Concrete
wall) is built to prevent the fall of earth which is in its undisturbed,
Columns natural position, but from which part has been excavated, leaving a
Reinforced Concrete
vertical or inclined face.
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Retaining walls are of three
Construction types:
Foundations Systems
a. Gravity wall. This is a type of
Foundation Walls,
wall which is constructed of such
Cisterns proportions that its weight alone
Reinforced Concrete
resists the thrust of the earth.
Columns Low walls are invariably gravity
Reinforced Concrete
walls constructed of brick, stone
Floor Systems masonry or concrete.
Roof Decks
b. Cantilever wall. The cantilever
wall is constructed of reinforced
Pre-Stress Concrete concrete and makes use of the
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor weight of the earth in resisting
Systems the tendency to overturn at the
outer edge. The vertical wall,
supported on a horizontal base,
serves as a cantilever beam in
resisting the earth pressure.
Walls of intermediate height are
generally of the cantilever type.
Heavy Reinforced
c. Counterfort wall. It is similar to the cantilever wall with the exception
Construction that the vertical wall is tied to the base at regular intervals with
Foundations Systems
triangular-shaped walls called counterforts ( a counterfort is similar to a
buttress, but where a buttress is placed on the side of the wall opposite
Foundation Walls,
the pressure acting on it, a counterfort is placed on the same side of the
Cisterns wall ). It is usually more economical to use the counterfort wall for
Reinforced Concrete
heights of 20 ft. or over.
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Concrete & Steel 3.0 3.7 PRESTRESS CONCRETE
Construction
Foundations Systems The concrete in the conventional reinforced-concrete beam is not used
Foundation Walls,
economically. With respect to bending stresses, only the concrete
Basement Construction, above the neutral surface resists compressive stresses. All the concrete
Cisterns in the tension area, below the neutral axis, is disregarded in designing
Reinforced Concrete because concrete is inherently weak in tension. Therefore, only about
Columns one-third of the concrete resists compressive stresses, the maximum
Reinforced Concrete stress being at the top of the beam, with the stresses decreasing in
Floor Systems
magnitude to a zero stress at the neutral surface. Since in the usual
Roof Decks reinforced-concrete beam the concrete cannot be used efficiently,
certain forces may be applied to beams that result in a member in which
all the concrete resists bending stresses. This is known as prestressed
Pre-Stress Concrete 3.7
concrete. A prestressed concrete beam is a member so designed and
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor constructed that all of the stresses in the concrete resulting from
Systems
bending are compressive, none is tensile. The name is derived from the
fact that the stresses are applied before the beam is loaded.
Heavy Reinforced
There are two methods of prestressed concrete, namely:
Construction
Foundations Systems
1. Pre-tensioning or bonded prestressing. In this method the reinforcing
steel is first prestressed and then the concrete is poured. When the
Foundation Walls,
concrete has developed strength, the stress in the steel is released.
Cisterns The steel when stretched out becomes smaller in cross-section than
Reinforced Concrete
when unstressed, and the concrete hardens around them while they are
Columns still small. When their artificial tension is released after the concrete
Reinforced Concrete
hardens, they expand, reverting to their original shape, grip the
Floor Systems surrounding concrete. The bond between the concrete and steel is
Roof Decks sufficient to create compression in the concrete.

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
2. Post-tensioning or unbonded pre-stressing. In this method, tubes,
Construction conduits, or channels are inserted in the concrete where reinforcing
Foundations Systems
steel is required. After the concrete is adequately cured, steel
reinforcement is inserted in the tubes or channels, stretched to the
Foundation Walls,
proper tension, and anchored at the ends to put a squeeze on the
Cisterns beam. Tensioning is done with hydraulic jacks.
Reinforced Concrete
Columns The reinforcing for pre-stressed concrete is usually wire, strand, bar or
Reinforced Concrete
rope made of heat-treated steel, all called tendons. Concrete must meet
Floor Systems strengths usually greater than AA-type concrete which has a strength of
Roof Decks 3750 psi in 28 days.

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks

Systems
Heavy Reinforced
The advantages of pre-stressed concrete are:
Construction
Foundations Systems
1. It is economical of materials due to the use of higher steel and
concrete stresses.
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns 2. It eliminates cracks because the concrete is always in compression.
Reinforced Concrete
Columns 3. It has remarkable elastic properties. For example, tests were made
Reinforced Concrete
on a floor slab only 1-5/8” thick reinforced with not more than 1% steel.
Floor Systems Although the span was only 10 ft. the slab deflected 3” under a load of
Roof Decks 1070lb. at its center. When the load was removed it returned to its
original level, undamaged.
Pre-Stress Concrete 3.7 4. Beams do not have to be cast at the side in one form, but may be
Pre-Cast Concrete Floor cast in small sections or blocks at the factory with reinforcing wires
Systems threaded through them. When the wires are stressed, the small units
are brought together like one large beam.
5. It develops remarkable resistance to shear stresses.

Heavy Reinforced
Concrete & Steel 3.0 3.8 PRE-CAST CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEMS
Construction
Foundations Systems Pre-stressed concrete is used where spans and loads cannot be
Foundation Walls, adequately designed in reinforced-concrete, and for deckings, beams,
Basement Construction, girders and other prefabricated units where greater spans and loads
Cisterns
with thinner, stronger, and in some cases, lighter members are
Reinforced Concrete required.
Columns
Reinforced Concrete APPLICATIONS

Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems 3.8
Heavy Reinforced
Construction 3.8.1 TYPES OF PRE-CAST CONCRETE FLOOR UNITS
Foundations Systems
1. Solid Flat Slabs
Foundation Walls, 2. Hollow Core Slabs
Cisterns 3. Single Tees
4. Double Tees
Reinforced Concrete
Columns 5. Rectangular, L-Shaped and Inverted Tee Beams
6. AASHTO Girders
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems 3.8
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems 3.8
Heavy Reinforced
Construction
Foundations Systems
Foundation Walls,
Cisterns
Reinforced Concrete
Columns
Reinforced Concrete
Floor Systems
Roof Decks
Pre-Stress Concrete

Systems 3.8
END

1 Building Const 3

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1 Building Const 3

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BUILDING

c. Slope or pyramidal footings

Walls & Structural Walls

Pre-Cast Concrete Floor

Foundations Systems 3.1

Walls & Structural Walls

Pre-Cast Concrete Floor

Pre-Cast Concrete Floor

Foundations Systems 3.1

Walls & Structural Walls

Pre-Cast Concrete Floor

Foundations Systems 3.1

Pre-Stress Concrete 2. Beams or girders with a slab

3. Beams or girders with a slab

•clear space between the flanges of the top

1. PILE FOUNDATIONS 3) Steel piles

Roof Decks 2). Concrete piles

Pre-Cast Concrete Floor

Reinforced Concrete • top of the pile protected from brooming by

Pre-Cast Concrete Floor

Walls & Structural Walls

Pre-Cast Concrete Floor

Foundations Systems 3.1

Walls & Structural Walls

Pre-Cast Concrete Floor

Foundations Systems 3.1

Foundations Systems 3.1

Walls & Structural Walls

Pre-Cast Concrete Floor

Walls & Structural Walls

Pre-Cast Concrete Floor

Walls & Structural Walls

Pre-Cast Concrete Floor

Walls & Structural Walls

Pre-Cast Concrete Floor

Walls & Structural Walls

Pre-Cast Concrete Floor

Walls & Structural Walls

Pre-Cast Concrete Floor

Walls & Structural Walls

Pre-Cast Concrete Floor

Foundations Systems EXTERIOR SLAB ON FILL

Walls & Structural Walls

Pre-Cast Concrete Floor

Walls & Structural Walls

Pre-Cast Concrete Floor

Walls & Structural Walls

Pre-Cast Concrete Floor

Walls & Structural Walls

Pre-Cast Concrete Floor

Pre-Cast Concrete Floor

• Minimum protective covering for slab reinforcement is 20mm (¾”).

Walls & Structural Walls

Pre-Cast Concrete Floor

Walls & Structural Walls

Pre-Cast Concrete Floor

Walls & Structural Walls

Pre-Cast Concrete Floor

Walls & Structural Walls

Pre-Cast Concrete Floor

Walls & Structural Walls

Pre-Cast Concrete Floor

Walls & Structural Walls