CHEMICAL BONDING

Alvan F. Shalas, M.Farm., Apt

Why do the atoms
bond together
?
 INTRODUCTION

“Atoms bond together because the

compound that results is more stable and
lower in energy than the separate atoms”

“A stable molecule results whenever a noble-gas

configuration is achieved for all the atoms—
eight dots (an octet) for main-group atoms or
two dots for hydrogen”
 INTRODUCTION
Chemical bonding  the attractive forces that hold atoms
together in compounds

(1) Ionic bonding results from electrostatic interactions among ions, the result
of the net transfer of one or more electrons from one atom or group of
atoms to another.
• Compounds containing predominantly ionic bonding are called ionic compounds
(2) Covalent bonding results from the sharing of one or more electron pairs
between two atoms.
• Those that are held together mainly by covalent bonds are called covalent compounds
INTRODUCTION
 LEWIS DOT FORMULAS OF ATOMS
• Chemical bonding involves only
the valence electrons, which
are usually the electrons in the
outermost occupied shells.
• In LEWIS DOT
REPRESENTATIONS/ LEWIS
FORMULA/ LEWIS DOT
FORMULA, only the electrons
in the outermost occupied s
and p orbitals are shown as
dots
• We represent an electron pair as a pair of dots and an unpaired electron as a single dot.
• Because of the large numbers of dots, such formulas are not useful for compounds of the
transition metals, lanthanides, and actinides.
 IONIC BONDING
FORMATION OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

• ION is an atom or a group of atoms that carries an electrical charge.

• An ion in which the atom or group of atoms has fewer electrons than
protons is positively charged and is called a CATION;
• One that has more electrons than protons is negatively charged and is
called an ANION.
• An ion that consists of only one atom is described as a MONATOMIC ION.
• Examples include the chloride ion, Cl 2- and the magnesium ion, Mg2+.
• An ion that contains more than one atom is called a POLYATOMIC ION.
• Examples include the ammonium ion, NH 4+; the hydroxide ion, OH2- and the
sulfate ion, SO42-
 IONIC BONDING
FORMATION OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

IONIC BONDING is the attraction of

oppositely charged ions (cations and anions) LOW HIGH
in large numbers to form a solid. Such a solid ELECTRONEGATIVITIES ELECTRONEGATIVITIES
compound is called an ionic solid and LOW IONIZATION AND VERY NEGATIVE
ENERGIES ELECTRON AFFINITIES
(NONMETALS)
When the electronegativity difference, Δ(EN), (METALS)
between two elements is large (as between a
metal and a non-metal) the elements are
IONIC BONDING
likely to form a compound by ionic bonding
(transfer of electrons).
 IONIC BONDING
FORMATION OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

• All the Group 1A metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs) will react
with the Group 7A elements (F, Cl, Br, I) to form ionic
compounds of the same general formula, MX.
• All the resulting ions, M+ and X-, have noble gas
configurations
• The farther apart across the periodic table two
elements are, the more ionic their bonding will be
IONIC BONDING
FORMATION OF IONIC COMPOUNDS
IONIC BONDING
FORMATION OF IONIC COMPOUNDS
 COVALENT BONDING
A COVALENT BOND is formed when two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons.
Covalent bonding occurs when the electronegativity difference, Δ(EN), between elements
(atoms) is zero or relatively small

• The result of this sharing is that each atom attains a more stable electron configuration—frequently the
same as that of the Nearest noble gas. This results in a more stable arrangement for the bonded atoms
• Most covalent bonds involve sharing of two, four, or six electrons—that is, one, two, or three pairs of
electrons.
• Two atoms form a single covalent bond when they share one pair of electrons,
• Double covalent bond when they share two electron pairs
• Triple covalent bond when they share three electron pairs.
COVALENT BONDING
Formation of Covalent Bonds
COVALENT BONDING
 COVALENT BONDING
Bond Lengths and Bond Energies

• For any covalent bond there is some

internuclear distance at which the
attractive and repulsive forces balance and
the bond is most stable  bond length of
that covalent bond.
• At that distance, the combination of
bonded atoms is more stable than the
separated atoms by some energy; this
energy difference  the bond dissociation
energy, or just the bond energy (the
energy that must be supplied to separate
the atoms, breaking the covalent bond)
COVALENT BONDING
Bond Lengths and Bond Energies
 COVALENT BONDING
Lewis Formulas for Molecules and Polyatomic Ions

In a Lewis formula, we represent a covalent bond

by writing each shared electron pair either as a
pair of two dots between the two atom symbols
or as a dash connecting them
The covalent bonds in a polyatomic ion can be represented in
the same way. The Lewis formula for the ammonium ion (NH 4+),
shows only eight electrons, even though the N atom has five
electrons in its valence shell and each H atom has one, for a
total of 5 + 4(1) = 9 electrons. The NH4+ ion, with a charge of 1+,
has one less electron than the original atoms
 COVALENT BONDING
Writing Lewis Formulas: The Octet Rule

In most of their compounds, the representative elements achieve noble

gas configurations. This statement is usually called the octet rule
because the noble gas configurations have 8 e- in their outermost shells
(except for He, which has 2 e-)
 COVALENT BONDING
Writing Lewis Formulas: The Octet Rule

A Guide to Writing Lewis Formulas

 COVALENT BONDING
Writing Lewis Formulas: The Octet Rule

A Guide to Writing Lewis Formulas

 COVALENT BONDING
Writing Lewis Formulas: The Octet Rule

A Guide to Writing Lewis Formulas

 COVALENT BONDING
Writing Lewis Formulas: The Octet Rule

A Guide to Writing Lewis Formulas

 COVALENT BONDING
Writing Lewis Formulas: The Octet Rule

EXERCISE

1. Write the Lewis formula for carbon disulphide (CS2)!

 COVALENT BONDING
Formal Charges

• Formal charge is the hypothetical charge on an atom in a molecule or polyatomic ion

• To find the formal charge, we count bonding electrons as though they were equally shared between the two
bonded atoms.
• The concept of formal charges helps us to write correct Lewis formulas in most cases. The most
energetically favorable formula for a molecule is usually one in which the formal charge on each atom is
zero or as near zero as possible.
 COVALENT BONDING
Formal Charges

Rules for Assigning Formal Charges to Atoms of Group A Elements

 COVALENT BONDING
Formal Charges

Example:
Carbon valence electrons :4
Carbon bonding electrons :8
Carbon nonbonding electrons : 0
For carbon :
Formal charge = 4 − 8/2 − 0 = 0

Hydrogen valence electrons : 1

Hydrogen bonding electrons : 2
Hydrogen nonbonding electrons : 0
For Hydrogen :
Formal charge = 1 − 2/2 − 0 = 0

Total Formal Charge = 0 + (4 x 0) = 0

COVALENT BONDING
Formal Charges

Nitrogen valence electrons :5

Nitrogen bonding electrons : 8
Nitrogen nonbonding electrons :0
For nitrogen
Formal charge = 5 − 8/2 − 0 = +1

Hydrogen valence electrons : 1

Hydrogen bonding electrons : 2
Hydrogen nonbonding electrons : 0
For Hydrogen :
Formal charge = 1 − 2/2 − 0 = 0

Total Formal Charge = = +1 + (4 x 0) = +1

COVALENT BONDING
Formal Charges

Sulfur valence electrons :6

Sulfur bonding electrons :6
Sulfur nonbonding electrons : 2
For sulfur :
Formal charge = 6 − 6/2 − 2 = +1

Oxygen valence electrons :6

Oxygen bonding electrons :2
Oxygen nonbonding electrons : 6
For Oxygen :
Formal charge = 6 − 2/2 − 6 = -1
 COVALENT BONDING
Formal Charges

Exercise:
1. Assign formal charges to, the atoms in nitrosyl chloride, NOCl !
 COVALENT BONDING
Limitations of the Octet Rule

BeCl 2
 COVALENT BONDING
Limitations of the Octet Rule

BCl 3
COVALENT BONDING
Limitations of the Octet Rule
 COVALENT BONDING
Limitations of the Octet Rule
PF 5
 COVALENT BONDING
Resonance

• The three structures shown here are resonance structures of the carbonate ion.
• The relationship among them is indicated by the double-headed arrows ( )
• This symbol does not mean that the ion flips back and forth among these three structures.
• The true structure can be described as an average, or hybrid, of the three
COVALENT BONDING
Resonance

The dashed lines indicate that some of the electrons shared

between C and O atoms are delocalized among all four atoms;
that is, the four pairs of shared electrons are equally distributed
among three C-O bonds
 COVALENT BONDING
Polar Covalent Bond

“Most bonds are neither fully ionic nor fully covalent but
are somewhere between the two extremes”

Such bonds are called polar covalent bonds, meaning

that the bonding electrons are attracted more strongly by
one atom than the other so that the electron distribution
between atoms is not symmetrical
 COVALENT BONDING
Polar Covalent Bond

Bond polarity is due to differences in ELECTRONEGATIVITY

(EN), the intrinsic ability of an atom to attract the shared
electrons in a covalent bond

> 2  Ionic

0,5-2  Polar Covalent

< 0,5  Non Polar Covalent

 COVALENT BONDING
Polar Covalent Bond

used to indicate the

direction of bond
electrostatic potential maps polarity

δ : Parsial Charge
 COVALENT BONDING
Dipole Moment

“Just as individual bonds, molecules as a whole are

often polar”
• Molecular polarity results from the vector summation of all
individual bond polarities and lone-pair contributions in the
molecule
• Net molecular polarity is measured by a quantity called the µ=dxq
dipole moment (µ)
• dipole moment is the product of the distance, d,
separating charges of equal magnitude and opposite sign, and
the magnitude of the charge, q
COVALENT BONDING
Dipole Moment
COVALENT BONDING

Molecules such as carbon dioxide, methane, and

ethane have zero dipole moments. Because of the
symmetrical structures of these molecules, the
individual bond polarities and lone-pair
contributions exactly cancel.
TERIMA KASIH