MO D U L E 3 :

MOB IL E N ET WO R K I NG
PREPARED BY:
MS. PRITI RUMAO
CONTENT
Medium Access Protocol Internet Protocol Transport layer
• Medium Access Control • Mobile IP • Mobile TCP
• Motivation
MAC
for specialized • IP Packet Delivery • Traditional TCP

• Introduction to multiple • Agent Advertisement and • Classical TCP

Access techniques (MACA) Discovery, Registration
• Tunnelling
Encapsulation
and • Indirect TCP, Snooping TCP
& Mobile TCP
• Reverse Tunnelling • Fast
Recovery
Retransmit/ Fast

• Routing (DSDV,DSR) • Transmission/Timeout

Freezing
• Selective Retransmission
MEDIUM ACCESS PROTOCOL
MEDIUM ACCESS PROTOCOL

• MEDIUM ACCESS CONTROL COMPRISES ALL MECHANISMS THAT REGULATE USER ACCESS TO A MEDIUM
USING SDM, TDM, FDM, OR CDM.

• MAC BELONGS TO LAYER 2, THE DATA LINK CONTROL LAYER (DLC).

• LAYER 2 IS SUBDIVIDED INTO THE LOGICAL LINK CONTROL (LLC), LAYER 2B, AND THE MAC, LAYER 2A.
• THE TASK OF DLC IS TO ESTABLISH A RELIABLE POINT TO POINT OR POINT TO MULTI-POINT
CONNECTION BETWEEN DIFFERENT DEVICES OVER A WIRED OR WIRELESS MEDIUM.
MOTIVATION FOR A SPECIALIZED MAC
• MAC WHICH WAS DESIGNED TO USE IN WIRED NETWORK, HAS FIXED FUNCTIONALITIES & SPECIFICATIONS.
WHILE DESIGNING WIRELESS NETWORK, ELABORATING & EXTENDING MAC SCHEME FROM WIRED
NETWORK WAS NECESSARY.

• FOR EXAMPLE :-CSMA/CD (CARRIER SENSE MULTIPLE ACCESS WITH COLLISION DETECTION):
• SEND AS SOON AS THE MEDIUM IS FREE, LISTEN INTO THE MEDIUM IF A COLLISION OCCURS (ORIGINAL
METHOD IN IEEE 802.3).

• PROBLEMS IN WIRELESS NETWORKS:

• SIGNAL STRENGTH DECREASES PROPORTIONAL TO THE SQUARE OF THE DISTANCE.
• THE SENDER WOULD APPLY CS AND CD, BUT THE COLLISIONS HAPPEN AT THE RECEIVER.
• IT MIGHT BE THE CASE THAT A SENDER CANNOT “HEAR” THE COLLISION, I.E., CD DOES NOT WORK.
• FURTHERMORE, CS MIGHT NOT WORK IF, E.G., A TERMINAL IS “HIDDEN”.
HIDDEN AND EXPOSED TERMINALS
NEAR AND FAR TERMINALS
SDMA
• SPACE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (SDMA) IS USED FOR ALLOCATING A SEPARATED SPACE TO USERS IN
WIRELESS NETWORKS.

• A TYPICAL APPLICATION INVOLVES ASSIGNING AN OPTIMAL BASE STATION TO A MOBILE PHONE USER.
• THE MOBILE PHONE MAY RECEIVE SEVERAL BASE STATIONS WITH DIFFERENT QUALITY.
• A MAC ALGORITHM COULD NOW DECIDE WHICH BASE STATION IS BEST, TAKING INTO ACCOUNT WHICH
FREQUENCIES (FDM), TIME SLOTS (TDM) OR CODE (CDM) ARE STILL AVAILABLE (DEPENDING ON THE
TECHNOLOGY).

• TYPICALLY, SDMA IS NEVER USED IN ISOLATION BUT ALWAYS IN COMBINATION WITH ONE OR MORE OTHER
SCHEMES.

• THEBASIS FOR THE SDMA ALGORITHM IS FORMED BY CELLS AND SECTORIZED ANTENNAS WHICH
CONSTITUTE THE INFRASTRUCTURE IMPLEMENTING SPACE DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (SDM).
FDMA

• FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (FDMA) COMPRISES ALL ALGORITHMS ALLOCATING FREQUENCIES
TO TRANSMISSION CHANNELS ACCORDING TO THE FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (FDM) SCHEME.

• ALLOCATION CAN EITHER BE FIXED OR DYNAMIC.

• FDM IS OFTEN USED FOR SIMULTANEOUS ACCESS TO THE MEDIUM BY BASE STATION AND MOBILE STATION
IN CELLULAR NETWORKS.

• HERE THE TWO PARTNERS TYPICALLY ESTABLISH A DUPLEX CHANNEL, I.E., A CHANNEL THAT ALLOWS FOR
SIMULTANEOUS TRANSMISSION IN BOTH DIRECTIONS.

• THE TWO DIRECTIONS, MOBILE STATION TO BASE STATION AND VICE VERSA ARE NOW SEPARATED USING
DIFFERENT FREQUENCIES.

• THIS SCHEME IS THEN CALLED FREQUENCY DIVISION DUPLEX (FDD).

FDMA (CONT)

• BOTH PARTNERS HAVE TO KNOW THE FREQUENCIES IN ADVANCE; THEY CANNOT JUST LISTEN INTO THE MEDIUM.
• THE TWO FREQUENCIES ARE ALSO KNOWN AS UPLINK, I.E., FROM MOBILE STATION TO BASE STATION OR FROM GROUND
CONTROL TO SATELLITE, AND AS DOWNLINK, I.E., FROM BASE STATION TO MOBILE STATION OR FROM SATELLITE TO
GROUND CONTROL.
FDMA (CONT)

• THE BASIC FREQUENCY ALLOCATION SCHEME FOR GSM IS FIXED AND REGULATED BY NATIONAL
AUTHORITIES.

• ALL UPLINKS USE THE BAND BETWEEN 890.2 AND 915 MHZ, ALL DOWNLINKS USE 935.2 TO 960 MHZ.
• ACCORDING TO FDMA, THE BASE STATION, SHOWN ON THE RIGHT SIDE, ALLOCATES A CERTAIN
FREQUENCY FOR UP - AND DOWNLINK TO ESTABLISH A DUPLEX CHANNEL WITH A MOBILE PHONE.

• UP- AND DOWNLINK HAVE A FIXED RELATION.

• IF THE UPLINK FREQUENCY IS FU = 890 MHZ + N·0.2 MHZ, THE DOWNLINK FREQUENCY IS FD = FU +
45 MHZ, I.E., FD = 935 MHZ + N·0.2 MHZ FOR A CERTAIN CHANNEL N.

• THE BASE STATION SELECTS THE CHANNEL.

• EACH CHANNEL (UPLINK AND DOWNLINK) HAS A BANDWIDTH OF 200 KHZ.
TDMA

• COMPARED TO FDMA, TIME DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (TDMA) OFFERS A MUCH MORE FLEXIBLE SCHEME,
WHICH COMPRISES ALL TECHNOLOGIES THAT ALLOCATE CERTAIN TIME SLOTS FOR COMMUNICATION, I.E.,
CONTROLLING TDM.

• NOW TUNING INTO A CERTAIN FREQUENCY IS NOT NECESSARY, I.E., THE RECEIVER CAN STAY AT THE SAME
FREQUENCY THE WHOLE TIME.

• USING ONLY ONE FREQUENCY, AND THUS VERY SIMPLE RECEIVERS AND TRANSMITTERS, MANY DIFFERENT
ALGORITHMS EXIST TO CONTROL MEDIUM ACCESS.

• LISTENING TO DIFFERENT FREQUENCIES AT THE SAME TIME IS QUITE DIFFICULT, BUT LISTENING TO MANY
CHANNELS SEPARATED IN TIME AT THE SAME FREQUENCY IS SIMPLE.

• ALMOST ALL MAC SCHEMES FOR WIRED NETWORKS WORK ACCORDING TO THIS PRINCIPLE, E.G.,
ETHERNET, TOKEN RING, ATM ETC.
TDMA (CONT)

• SYNCHRONIZATION BETWEEN SENDER AND RECEIVER HAS TO BE ACHIEVED IN THE TIME DOMAIN.
• AGAIN THIS CAN BE DONE BY USING A FIXED PATTERN SIMILAR TO FDMA TECHNIQUES, I.E., ALLOCATING A
CERTAIN TIME SLOT FOR A CHANNEL, OR BY USING A DYNAMIC ALLOCATION SCHEME.

• DYNAMIC ALLOCATION SCHEMES REQUIRE AN IDENTIFICATION FOR EACH TRANSMISSION (E.G., SENDER
ADDRESS) OR THE TRANSMISSION HAS TO BE ANNOUNCED BEFORE HAND.

• MAC ADDRESSES ARE QUITE OFTEN USED AS IDENTIFICATION.

• THIS ENABLES A RECEIVER IN A BROADCAST MEDIUM TO RECOGNIZE IF IT REALLY IS THE INTENDED
RECEIVER OF A MESSAGE.

• FIXED SCHEMES DO NOT NEED AN IDENTIFICATION, BUT ARE NOT AS FLEXIBLE CONSIDERING VARYING
BANDWIDTH REQUIREMENTS.
TDMA (CONT)

FIXED TDM

• THESIMPLEST ALGORITHM FOR USING TDM IS ALLOCATING TIME SLOTS FOR CHANNELS IN A FIXED
PATTERN. THIS RESULTS IN A FIXED BANDWIDTH.

• THESE PATTERNS GUARANTEE A FIXED DELAY – ONE CAN TRANSMIT, E.G., EVERY 10 MS AS THIS IS THE CASE
FOR STANDARD DECT SYSTEMS.

• MAC IS QUITE SIMPLE, AS THE ONLY CRUCIAL FACTOR IS ACCESSING THE RESERVED TIME SLOT AT THE RIGHT
MOMENT.

• IF THIS SYNCHRONIZATION IS ASSURED, EACH MOBILE STATION KNOWS ITS TURN AND NO INTERFERENCE
WILL HAPPEN.

• THE FIXED PATTERN CAN BE ASSIGNED BY THE BASE STATION, WHERE COMPETITION BETWEEN DIFFERENT
MOBILE STATIONS THAT WANT TO ACCESS THE MEDIUM IS SOLVED.
TDMA (CONT)
• FIGURE BELOW SHOWS HOW THESE FIXED TDM PATTERNS ARE USED TO IMPLEMENT MULTIPLE ACCESS AND
A DUPLEX CHANNEL BETWEEN A BASE STATION AND MOBILE STATION.

• ASSIGNING DIFFERENT SLOTS FOR UPLINK AND DOWNLINK USING THE SAME FREQUENCY IS CALLED TIME
DIVISION DUPLEX (TDD).
TDMA (CONT)

CLASSICAL ALOHA

• A SCHEME WHICH WAS INVENTED AT THE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAII AND WAS USED IN THE ALOHANET FOR
WIRELESS CONNECTION OF SEVERAL STATIONS.

• ALOHA NEITHER COORDINATES MEDIUM ACCESS NOR DOES IT RESOLVE CONTENTION ON THE MAC LAYER.
• INSTEAD, EACH STATION CAN ACCESS THE MEDIUM AT ANY TIME.
• THIS IS A RANDOM ACCESS SCHEME, WITHOUT A CENTRAL ARBITER CONTROLLING ACCESS AND WITHOUT
COORDINATION AMONG THE STATIONS.

• IF TWO OR MORE STATIONS ACCESS THE MEDIUM AT THE SAME TIME, A COLLISION OCCURS AND THE
TRANSMITTED DATA IS DESTROYED.

• RESOLVING THIS PROBLEM IS LEFT TO HIGHER LAYERS (E.G., RETRANSMISSION OF DATA).

TDMA (CONT)

• THE SIMPLE ALOHA WORKS FINE FOR A LIGHT LOAD AND DOES NOT REQUIRE ANY COMPLICATED ACCESS
MECHANISMS.

• ONTHE CLASSICAL ASSUMPTION THAT DATA PACKET ARRIVAL FOLLOWS A POISSON DISTRIBUTION,
MAXIMUM THROUGHPUT IS ACHIEVED FOR AN 18 PERCENT LOAD.
TDMA (CONT)
SLOTTED ALOHA

• THE FIRST REFINEMENT OF THE CLASSICAL ALOHA SCHEME IS PROVIDED BY THE INTRODUCTION OF TIME SLOTS (SLOTTED
ALOHA).

• IN THIS CASE, ALL SENDERS HAVE TO BE SYNCHRONIZED, TRANSMISSION CAN ONLY START AT THE BEGINNING OF A TIME SLOTS.
• STILL, ACCESS IS NOT COORDINATED.
• UNDER THE ASSUMPTION STATED ABOVE, THE INTRODUCTION OF SLOTS RAISES THE THROUGHPUT FROM 18 PER CENT TO 36
PER CENT, I.E., SLOTTING DOUBLES THE THROUGHPUT.
TDMA (CONT)

CARRIER SENSE MULTIPLE ACCESS

• ONE IMPROVEMENT TO THE BASIC ALOHA IS SENSING THE CARRIER BEFORE ACCESSING THE MEDIUM.
• SENSING THE CARRIER AND ACCESSING THE MEDIUM ONLY IF THE CARRIER IS IDLE DECREASES THE PROBABILITY OF A
COLLISION.

• BUT, AS ALREADY MENTIONED IN THE INTRODUCTION, HIDDEN TERMINALS CANNOT BE DETECTED.

• IF A HIDDEN TERMINAL TRANSMITS AT THE SAME TIME AS ANOTHER SENDER, A COLLISION MIGHT OCCUR AT THE
RECEIVER.

• THIS BASIC SCHEME IS STILL USED IN MOST WIRELESS LANS.

TDMA (CONT)

SEVERAL VERSIONS OF CSMA EXIST.

• INNON-PERSISTENT CSMA, STATIONS SENSE THE CARRIER AND START SENDING IMMEDIATELY IF THE
MEDIUM IS IDLE.

• IFTHE MEDIUM IS BUSY, THE STATION PAUSES A RANDOM AMOUNT OF TIME BEFORE SENSING THE
MEDIUM AGAIN AND REPEATING THIS PATTERN.

• IN P-PERSISTENT CSMA SYSTEMS NODES ALSO SENSE THE MEDIUM, BUT ONLY TRANSMIT WITH A
PROBABILITY OF P, WITH THE STATION DEFERRING TO THE NEXT SLOT WITH THE PROBABILITY 1-P, I.E.,
ACCESS IS SLOTTED IN ADDITION.

• IN 1-PERSISTENT CSMA SYSTEMS, ALL STATIONS WISHING TO TRANSMIT ACCESS THE MEDIUM AT THE SAME
TIME, AS SOON AS IT BECOMES IDLE.

• THIS WILL CAUSE MANY COLLISIONS IF MANY STATIONS WISH TO SEND AND BLOCK EACH OTHER.
MULTIPLE ACCESS WITH COLLISION AVOIDANCE (MACA)
• MULTIPLE ACCESS WITH COLLISION AVOIDANCE (MACA) PRESENTS A SIMPLE SCHEME THAT SOLVES THE
HIDDEN TERMINAL PROBLEM, DOES NOT NEED A BASE STATION, AND IS STILL A RANDOM ACCESS ALOHA
SCHEME – BUT WITH DYNAMIC RESERVATION.

• MACA USES SHORT SIGNALING PACKETS FOR COLLISION AVOIDANCE.

• RTS (REQUEST TO SEND): A SENDER REQUEST THE RIGHT TO SEND FROM A RECEIVER WITH A SHORT
RTS PACKET BEFORE IT SENDS A DATA PACKET.
• CTS (CLEAR TO SEND): THE RECEIVER GRANTS THE RIGHT TO SEND AS SOON AS IT IS READY TO RECEIVE.
• SIGNALLING PACKETS CONTAIN
• SENDER ADDRESS
• RECEIVER ADDRESS
• PACKET SIZE
MACA (CONT)
MACA (CONT)
COMPARISON OF S/T/F/C DMA
MOBILE IP
INTRODUCTION
• IN IP NETWORKS, ROUTING IS BASED ON STATIONARY IP ADDRESSES, SIMILAR TO HOW A POSTAL LETTER IS
DELIVERED TO THE FIXED ADDRESS ON THE ENVELOPE. A DEVICE ON A NETWORK IS REACHABLE THROUGH
NORMAL IP ROUTING BY THE IP ADDRESS IT IS ASSIGNED ON THE NETWORK.

• THE PROBLEM OCCURS WHEN A DEVICE ROAMS AWAY FROM ITS HOME NETWORK AND IS NO LONGER
REACHABLE USING NORMAL IP ROUTING. THIS RESULTS IN THE ACTIVE SESSIONS OF THE DEVICE BEING
TERMINATED. MOBILE IP WAS CREATED TO ENABLE USERS TO KEEP THE SAME IP ADDRESS WHILE
TRAVELING TO A DIFFERENT NETWORK (WHICH MAY EVEN BE ON A DIFFERENT WIRELESS OPERATOR), THUS
ENSURING THAT A ROAMING INDIVIDUAL COULD CONTINUE COMMUNICATION WITHOUT SESSIONS OR
CONNECTIONS BEING DROPPED.

• MOBILE IP IS AN OPEN STANDARD, DEFINED BY THE INTERNET ENGINEERING TASK FORCE (IETF) RFC 2002,
THAT ALLOWS USERS TO KEEP THE SAME IP ADDRESS, STAY CONNECTED, AND MAINTAIN ONGOING
APPLICATIONS WHILE ROAMING BETWEEN IP NETWORKS. MOBILE IP IS SCALABLE FOR THE INTERNET
BECAUSE IT IS BASED ON IP—ANY MEDIA THAT CAN SUPPORT IP CAN SUPPORT MOBILE IP.
CONT

• MOBILE IP’ SIGNIFIES THAT, WHILE A USER IS CONNECTED TO APPLICATIONS ACROSS THE INTERNET AND THE
USER’S POINT OF ATTACHMENT CHANGES DYNAMICALLY, ALL CONNECTIONS ARE MAINTAINED DESPITE THE
CHANGE IN UNDERLYING NETWORK PROPERTIES

• SIMILAR TO THE HANDOFF/ROAMING SITUATION IN CELLULAR NETWORK

• MOBILE IP ALLOWS THE MOBILE NODE TO USE TWO IP ADDRESSES CALLED HOME ADDRESS AND CARE OF
ADDRESS

• THE HOME ADDRESS IS STATIC AND KNOWN TO EVERYBODY AS THE IDENTITY OF THE HOST
• THE CARE OF ADDRESS CHANGES AT EACH NEW POINT OF ATTACHMENT AND CAN BE THOUGHT OF AS THE
MOBILE NODE’S LOCATION SPECIFIC ADDRESS
MOBILE IP GOALS
• IN ORDER TO SUPPORT MOBILITY, THE STANDARD IP MUST BE MODIFIED
• THE GOALS OF MOBILE IP ARE:
• GIVE MOBILE USERS THE FULL INTERNET EXPERIENCE, NOT JUST A LIMITED MENU OF SPECIALIZED WEB SERVICES, OR E-
MAIL.

• BE REASONABLY FAST WITH AT LEAST 100 KBPS THROUGHOUT PER USER.

• WORK INDOORS AND OUTDOORS TO BOTH STATIONARY AND MOBILE USERS
• USE POWER EFFICIENTLY, BECAUSE MOST DEVICES WILL RUN ON BATTERIES OR FUEL CELLS FOR AT LEAST A FEW HOURS
ON A SINGLE CHARGE.

• IT SHOULD BE SIMPLE TO IMPLEMENT WITH MOBILE NODE SOFTWARE.

• THE SIZE AND FREQUENCY OF REQUIRED ROUTING UPDATES SHOULD BE AS SMALL AS POSSIBLE.
• IT SHOULD SCALE UP TO SUPPORT MILLIONS OF ACTIVE DEVICES, OR MORE, WITHIN A SINGLE METROPOLITAN REGION.
MOBILE IP TERMINOLOGY
MOBILE NODE (MN)

• SYSTEM (NODE) THAT CAN CHANGE THE POINT OF CONNECTION TO THE NETWORK WITHOUT CHANGING ITS IP ADDRESS
HOME AGENT (HA)

• ROUTER IN THE HOME NETWORK OF THE MN, WHICH REGISTERS THE LOCATION OF THE MN, TUNNELS IP DATAGRAMS TO THE COA
WHEN MN IS AWAY FROM HOME.
FOREIGN AGENT (FA)

• ROUTER IN THE CURRENT VISITED NETWORK OF THE MN, WHICH FORWARDS THE TUNNELED DATAGRAMS TO THE MN, ALSO ACTS AS
THE DEFAULT ROUTER FOR THE REGISTERED MN

CARE-OF ADDRESS (COA)

• ADDRESS OF THE CURRENT TUNNEL END-POINT FOR THE MN (AT FA OR MN) ACTUAL LOCATION OF THE MN FROM AN IP POINT OF VIEW
CAN BE CHOSEN, E.G., VIA DHCP
CORRESPONDENT NODE (CN)

• COMMUNICATION PARTNER
CONT…
HOME NETWORK:

• IS THE SUBNET OF THE MN BELONG TO WITH RESPECT TO ITS IP ADDRESS.

• NO MOBILE IP SUPPORT IS NEEDED WITHIN THE HOME NETWORK
FOREIGN AGENT COA:

• THE COA COULD BE LOCATED AT FA.IE THE COA IS AN IP ADDRESS OF FA.

• FA IS TUNNEL END POINT AND FORWARDS PACKET TO MN.
CO-LOCATED COA :

• THE COA IS CO-LOCATED IF THE MN TEMPORARILY ACQUIRED AN ADDITIONAL IP ADDRESS WHICH ACTS AS
COA.

• THIS ADDRESS IS TOPOLOGICALLY CORRECT AND THE TUNNEL ENDPOINT IS AT MN

MOBILE IP WORKING
CONT…

• LET’S TAKE THE CASE OF MOBILE NODE (A) AND ANOTHER HOST (SERVER X). THE FOLLOWING STEPS TAKE PLACE:
• SERVER X WANTS TO TRANSMIT AN IP DATAGRAM TO NODE A. THE HOME ADDRESS OF A IS ADVERTISED AND KNOWN
TO X. X DOES NOT KNOW WHETHER A IS IN THE HOME NETWORK OR SOMEWHERE ELSE. THEREFORE, X SENDS THE
PACKET TO A WITH A’S HOME ADDRESS AS THE DESTINATION IP ADDRESS IN THE IP HEADER. THE IP DATAGRAM IS
ROUTED TO A’S HOME NETWORK.

• AT THE A’S HOME NETWORK, THE INCOMING IP DATAGRAM IS INTERCEPTED BY THE HOME AGENT. THE HOME AGENT
DISCOVERS THAT A IS IN A FOREIGN NETWORK. A CARE OF ADDRESS HAS BEEN ALLOCATED TO A BY THIS FOREIGN
NETWORK AND AVAILABLE WITH THE HOME AGENT. THE HOME AGENT ENCAPSULATES THE ENTIRE DATAGRAM INSIDE A
NEW IP DATAGRAM, WITH A’S CARE OF ADDRESS IN THE IP HEADER. THIS NEW DATAGRAM WITH THE CARE OF ADDRESS
AS THE DESTINATION ADDRESS IS RETRANSMITTED BY THE HOME AGENT.

• AT THE FOREIGN NETWORK, THE INCOMING IP DATAGRAM IS INTERCEPTED BY THE FOREIGN AGENT. THE FOREIGN
AGENT IS THE COUNTERPART OF THE HOME AGENT IN THE FOREIGN NETWORK. THE FOREIGN AGENT STRIPS OFF THE
OUTER IP HEADER, AND DELIVERS THE ORIGINAL DATAGRAM TO A.
CONT…

• A INTENDS TO RESPOND TO THIS MESSAGE AND SENDS TRAFFIC TO X. IN THIS EXAMPLE, X IS NOT MOBILE; THEREFORE X
HAS A FIXED IP ADDRESS. FOR ROUTING A’S IP DATAGRAM TO X, EACH DATAGRAM IS SENT TO SOME ROUTER IN THE
FOREIGN NETWORK. TYPICALLY, THIS ROUTER IS THE FOREIGN AGENT. A USES X’S IP STATIC ADDRESS AS THE
DESTINATION ADDRESS IN THE IP HEADER.

• THE IP DATAGRAM FROM A TO X TRAVELS DIRECTLY ACROSS THE NETWORK, USING X’S IP ADDRESS AS THE DESTINATION
ADDRESS.

• AGENT DISCOVERY - A MOBILE NODE USES A DISCOVERY PROCEDURE TO IDENTIFY PROSPECTIVE HOME AGENTS AND
FOREIGN AGENTS.

• REGISTRATION - A MOBILE NODE USES A REGISTRATION PROCEDURE TO INFORM ITS HOME AGENT OF ITS CARE-OF
ADDRESS.

• TUNNELING - TUNNELING PROCEDURE IS USED TO FORWARD IP DATAGRAMS FROM A HOME ADDRESS TO A CARE OF
ADDRESS.
AGENT DISCOVERY

• ONE INITIAL PROBLEM OF AN MN AFTER MOVING IS HOW TO FIND A FOREIGN AGENT.

• HOW DOES THE MN DISCOVER THAT IT HAS MOVED ? FOR THIS PURPOSE MOBILE IP DESCRIBES TWO METHODS:
1)AGENT ADVERTISEMENT
2)AGENT SOLICITATION

• WHICH ARE IN FACT ROUTER DISCOVERY METHODS PLUS EXTENSIONS.

AGENT ADVERTISEMENT
• HA AND FA ADVERTISE THEIR PRESENCE PERIODICALLY USING SPECIAL AGENT ADVERTISEMENT MESSAGES
• THESE MESSAGES CAN BE SEEN AS BEACON BROADCAST INTO SUBNET
• FOR THESE ADVERTISEMENT ICMP (INTERNET CONTROL MESSAGE PROTOCOL) IS USED WITH SOME MOBILITY
EXTENSIONS

• ROUTERS IN THE FIXED NETWORK IMPLEMENTING THIS STD ALSO ADVERTISE THEIR ROUTING SERVICE PERIODICALLY TO
THE ATTACHED LINK

• MN LISTENS TO THESE MESSAGES AND DETECTS, IF IT IS IN THE HOME OR A FOREIGN NETWORK (STANDARD CASE FOR
HOME NETWORK)

• MN READS A COA FROM THE FA ADVERTISEMENT MESSAGES

• UPPER HALF::ICMP PACKETS LOWER HALF: MOBILITY EXTENSION
CONT…
AGENT SOLICITATION(REQUEST FOR SOMETHING)

• MNS CAN SOLICIT FOR AGENTS BY SENDING AGENT SOLICITATION MESSAGES IF THEY HAVE NOT HEARD AN
AGENT ADVERTISEMENT IN AWHILE OR USE SOME OTHER MECHANISM TO OBTAIN A COA OR TEMP. IP
ADDRESS (E.G. DHCP).

• CARE SHOULD BE TAKEN THAT TO ENSURE IT SHOULD NOT FLOOD NETWORK.

• MN CAN SEND 3 SOLICITATION MESSAGES PER SECOND.
• IF NO ANSWER SOLICITATION RATE SHOULD BE DECREASED EXPONENTIALLY.
• AFTER THESE STEPS MN NOW RECEIVE A COA ,EITHER ONE FOR FA OR CO-LOCATED COA.
• THE NEXT STEP FOR MN IS REGISTRATION WITH HA IF THE MN IS IN FOREIGN NETWORK.
• MNS KNOW THEY ARE HOME WHEN THEY RECOGNIZE THEIR HA.
REGISTRATION
REGISTRATION: USED BY A MN TO INFORM THE FA THAT IT IS VISITING.

• THE NEW CARE OF ADDRESS OF THE MN IS SENT TO THE HA.

• REGISTRATION EXPIRES, DURATION IS NEGOTIATED DURING REGISTRATION. MOBILE MUST RE-REGISTER BEFORE IT EXPIRES.
• ALL REGISTRATIONS ARE AUTHENTICATED.
• THE MN SENDS A REGISTRATION REQUEST IN TO THE FA WHICH PASSES IT ALONG TO THE HOME AGENT. THE HA RESPONDS TO THE FA
WHICH THEN INFORMS THE MN THAT ALL IS IN ORDER AND REGISTRATION IS COMPLETE.
IP REGISTRATION REQUEST (CONT)
IP REGISTRATION REPLY (CONT)
TUNNELLING AND ENCAPSULATION
• A TUNNEL ESTABLISHES A VIRTUAL PIPE FOR DATA PACKETS BETWEEN A TUNNEL ENTRY AND A TUNNEL ENDPOINT.
• PACKETS ENTERING A TUNNEL ARE FORWARDED INSIDE THE TUNNEL AND LEAVE THE TUNNEL UNCHANGED. TUNNELING, I.E.,
SENDING A PACKET THROUGH A TUNNEL, IS ACHIEVED BY USING ENCAPSULATION.

• ENCAPSULATION IS THE MECHANISM OF TAKING A PACKET CONSISTING OF PACKET HEADER AND DATA AND PUTTING IT INTO THE
DATA PART OF A NEW PACKET.

• ENCAPSULATION AND ARE THE OPERATIONS TYPICALLY PERFORMED WHEN A PACKET IS TRANSFERRED FROM A HIGHER
PROTOCOL LAYER TO A LOWER LAYER OR FROM A LOWER TO A HIGHER LAYER RESPECTIVELY. HERE THESE FUNCTIONS ARE USED
WITHIN THE SAME LAYER.
ENCAPSULATION

• THE HA TAKES THE ORIGINAL PACKET WITH THE MN AS DESTINATION, PUTS IT INTO THE DATA PART OF A NEW PACKET
AND SETS THE NEW IP HEADER IN SUCH A WAY THAT THE PACKET IS ROUTED TO THE COA.

• THE NEW HEADER IS ALSO CALLED THE OUTER HEADER FOR OBVIOUS REASONS. ADDITIONALLY, THERE IS AN INNER
HEADER, WHICH CAN BE IDENTICAL TO THE ORIGINAL HEADER AS THIS IS THE CASE FOR IP-IN-IP ENCAPSULATION, OR
THE INNER HEADER CAN BE COMPUTED DURING ENCAPSULATION.
TYPES OF ENCAPSULATION
• THREE TYPES OF ENCAPSULATION PROTOCOLS ARE SPECIFIED FOR MOBILE IP:
• IP-IN-IP ENCAPSULATION: REQUIRED TO BE SUPPORTED. FULL IP HEADER ADDED TO THE ORIGINAL IP PACKET. THE NEW
HEADER CONTAINS HA ADDRESS AS SOURCE AND CARE OF ADDRESS AS DESTINATION.
CONT…

• MINIMAL ENCAPSULATION: OPTIONAL. REQUIRES LESS OVERHEAD BUT REQUIRES CHANGES TO THE
ORIGINAL HEADER. DESTINATION ADDRESS IS CHANGED TO CARE OF ADDRESS AND SOURCE IP ADDRESS IS
MAINTAINED AS IS.
CONT…
• GENERIC ROUTING ENCAPSULATION (GRE): IT ALLOWS THE ENCAPSULATION OF PACKETS OF ONE PROTOCOL SUITE INTO
THE PAYLOAD PORTION OF A PACKET OF ANOTHER PROTOCOL SUITE (HANKS, 1994).

• THE PACKET OF ONE PROTOCOL SUITE WITH THE ORIGINAL PACKET HEADER AND DATA IS TAKEN AND A NEW GRE HEADER
ISPREPENDED.

• TOGETHER THIS FORMS THE NEW DATA PART OF THE NEW PACKET. FINALLY, THE HEADER OF THE SECOND PROTOCOL SUITE
IS PUT IN FRONT.

• THE LEFT SIDE THE FIELDS OF A PACKET INSIDE THE TUNNEL BETWEEN HOME AGENT AND COA USING GRE AS AN
ENCAPSULATION SCHEME ACCORDING TO RFC 1701.
REVERSE TUNNELLING

• REVERSE TUNNEL MEANS A TUNNEL THAT START FROM THE MNS COA AND TERMINATES AT THE HA.
• IT IS ASSUMED THAT ROUTING WITHIN THE INTERNET IS INDEPENDENT OF THE DATA PACKETS SOURCE ADDRESS. THE
TRUTH IS THAT THE MN CAN DIRECTLY SEND ITS PACKETS TO THE CN AS IN ANY OTHER STANDARD IP SITUATION. THE
DESTINATION ADDRESS IN THE PACKETS IS THAT OF CN. BUT THERE ARE SEVERAL SEVERE PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH
THIS SIMPLE SOLUTION.
SOME OBSTACLE RELATED WITH REVERSE TUNNELLING ARE AS FOLLOW:

• FIREWALL
• MULTICAST
• TIME TO LIVE
CONT…
CONT…
FIREWALL:

• ALMOST ALL COMPANIES AND MANY OTHER INSTITUTIONS SECURE THEIR INTERNAL NETWORKS (INTRANET)
CONNECTED TO THE INTERNET WITH THE HELP OF A FIREWALL. FIREWALLS CAN BE SET UP TO FILTER OUT MALICIOUS
ADDRESSES FROM AN ADMINISTRATOR’S POINT OF VIEW.

• QUITE OFTEN FIREWALLS ONLY ALLOW PACKETS WITH TOPOLOGICALLY CORRECT ADDRESSES TO PASS. THIS PROVIDES AT
LEAST A FIRST AND SIMPLE PROTECTION AGAINST MISCONFIGURED SYSTEMS OF UNKNOWN ADDRESSES.

• HOWEVER, MN STILL SENDS PACKETS WITH ITS FIXED IP ADDRESS AS SOURCE WHICH IS NOT TOPOLOGICALLY CORRECT IN
A FOREIGN NETWORK.

• FIREWALLS OFTEN FILTER PACKETS COMING FROM OUTSIDE CONTAINING A SOURCE ADDRESS FROM COMPUTERS OF THE
INTERNAL NETWORK.

• THIS AVOIDS OTHER COMPUTERS THAT COULD USE INTERNAL ADDRESSES AND CLAIM TO BE INTERNAL COMPUTERS.
HOWEVER, THIS ALSO IMPLIES THAT AN MN CANNOT SEND A PACKET TO A COMPUTER RESIDING IN ITS HOME NETWORK.
CONT…
MULTICAST:

• REVERSE TUNNELS ARE NEEDED FOR THE MN TO PARTICIPATE IN A MULTICAST GROUP.

• WHILE THE NODES IN THE HOME NETWORK MIGHT PARTICIPATE IN A MULTI-CAST GROUP, AN MN IN A FOREIGN NETWORK
CANNOT TRANSMIT MULTI-CAST PACKETS IN A WAY THAT THEY EMANATE FROM ITS HOME NETWORK WITHOUT A REVERSE
TUNNEL.

• THE FOREIGN NETWORK MIGHT NOT EVEN PROVIDE THE TECHNICAL INFRASTRUCTURE FOR MULTI-CAST COMMUNICATION.

TIME-TO-LIVE:

• CONSIDER AN MN SENDING PACKETS WITH A CERTAIN TTL WHILE STILL IN ITS HOME NETWORK. THE TTL MIGHT BE LOW
ENOUGH SO THAT NO PACKET IS TRANSMITTED OUTSIDE A CERTAIN REGION.

• IF THE MN NOW MOVES TO A FOREIGN NETWORK, THIS TTL MIGHT BE TOO LOW FOR THE PACKETS TO REACH THE SAME
NODES AS BEFORE.

• MOBILE IP IS NO LONGER TRANSPARENT IF A USER HAS TO ADJUST THE TTL WHILE MOVING.

• A REVERSE TUNNEL IS NEEDED THAT REPRESENTS ONLY ONE HOP, NO MATTER HOW MANY HOPS ARE REALLY NEEDED FROM
THE FOREIGN TO THE HOME NETWORK.
WIRELESS NETWORKS
• NEED: ACCESS COMPUTING AND COMMUNICATION SERVICES, ON THE MOVE
• INFRASTRUCTURE-BASED NETWORKS
• TRADITIONAL CELLULAR SYSTEMS (BASE STATION INFRASTRUCTURE)
• WIRELESS LANS
• INFRARED (IRDA) OR RADIO LINKS (WAVELAN)
• VERY FLEXIBLE WITHIN THE RECEPTION AREA; AD-HOC NETWORKS POSSIBLE
• LOW BANDWIDTH COMPARED TO WIRED NETWORKS (1-10 MBIT/S)
• AD HOC NETWORKS
• USEFUL WHEN INFRASTRUCTURE NOT AVAILABLE, IMPRACTICAL, OR EXPENSIVE
• MILITARY APPLICATIONS, RESCUE, HOME NETWORKING
MOBILE AD HOC NETWORKS (MANET)

• HOST MOVEMENT FREQUENT

• TOPOLOGY CHANGE FREQUENT
B
A A
B

• NO CELLULAR INFRASTRUCTURE. MULTI-HOP WIRELESS LINKS.

• DATA MUST BE ROUTED VIA INTERMEDIATE NODES.
WHY AD HOC NETWORKS ?
• SETTING UP OF FIXED ACCESS POINTS AND BACKBONE INFRASTRUCTURE IS NOT ALWAYS VIABLE
• INFRASTRUCTURE MAY NOT BE PRESENT IN A DISASTER AREA OR WAR ZONE
• INFRASTRUCTURE MAY NOT BE PRACTICAL FOR SHORT-RANGE RADIOS; BLUETOOTH (RANGE ~ 10M)

• AD HOC NETWORKS:
• DO NOT NEED BACKBONE INFRASTRUCTURE SUPPORT
• ARE EASY TO DEPLOY
• USEFUL WHEN INFRASTRUCTURE IS ABSENT, DESTROYED OR IMPRACTICAL
CHALLENGES IN MOBILE ENVIRONMENTS

·LIMITATIONS OF THE WIRELESS NETWORK

·PACKET LOSS DUE TO TRANSMISSION ERRORS
·VARIABLE CAPACITY LINKS
·FREQUENT DISCONNECTIONS/PARTITIONS
·LIMITED COMMUNICATION BANDWIDTH
·BROADCAST NATURE OF THE COMMUNICATIONS
·LIMITATIONS IMPOSED BY MOBILITY
·DYNAMICALLY CHANGING TOPOLOGIES/ROUTES
·LACK OF MOBILITY AWARENESS BY SYSTEM/APPLICATIONS
·LIMITATIONS OF THE MOBILE COMPUTER
·SHORT BATTERY LIFETIME
·LIMITED CAPACITIES
 TRADITIONAL ROUTING
• A ROUTING PROTOCOL SETS UP A ROUTING TABLE IN ROUTERS

• A NODE MAKES A LOCAL CHOICE DEPENDING ON GLOBAL TOPOLOGY

ROUTING PROTOCOLS
• PROACTIVE PROTOCOLS
• TRADITIONAL DISTRIBUTED SHORTEST-PATH PROTOCOLS
• MAINTAIN ROUTES BETWEEN EVERY HOST PAIR AT ALL TIMES
• BASED ON PERIODIC UPDATES; HIGH ROUTING OVERHEAD
• EXAMPLE: DSDV (DESTINATION SEQUENCED DISTANCE VECTOR)
• REACTIVE PROTOCOLS
• DETERMINE ROUTE IF AND WHEN NEEDED
• SOURCE INITIATES ROUTE DISCOVERY
• EXAMPLE: DSR (DYNAMIC SOURCE ROUTING)
• HYBRID PROTOCOLS
• ADAPTIVE; COMBINATION OF PROACTIVE AND REACTIVE
• EXAMPLE : ZRP (ZONE ROUTING PROTOCOL)
PROTOCOL TRADE-OFFS
• PROACTIVE PROTOCOLS
• ALWAYS MAINTAIN ROUTES
• LITTLE OR NO DELAY FOR ROUTE DETERMINATION
• CONSUME BANDWIDTH TO KEEP ROUTES UP-TO-DATE
• MAINTAIN ROUTES WHICH MAY NEVER BE USED

• REACTIVE PROTOCOLS
• LOWER OVERHEAD SINCE ROUTES ARE DETERMINED ON DEMAND
• SIGNIFICANT DELAY IN ROUTE DETERMINATION
• EMPLOY FLOODING (GLOBAL SEARCH)
• CONTROL TRAFFIC MAY BE BURSTY

• WHICH APPROACH ACHIEVES A BETTER TRADE-OFF DEPENDS ON THE TRAFFIC AND MOBILITY PATTERNS
DYNAMIC SOURCE ROUTING (DSR)

• WHEN NODE S WANTS TO SEND A PACKET TO NODE D, BUT DOES NOT

KNOW A ROUTE TO D, NODE S INITIATES A ROUTE DISCOVERY

• SOURCE NODE S FLOODS ROUTE REQUEST (RREQ)

• EACH NODE APPENDS OWN IDENTIFIER WHEN FORWARDING RREQ

ROUTE DISCOVERY IN DSR
Y

Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Represents a node that has received RREQ for D from S

 ROUTE DISCOVERY IN DSR

Y
Broadcast transmission

[S] Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N
Represents transmission of RREQ
[X,Y] Represents list of identifiers appended to RREQ
ROUTE DISCOVERY IN DSR

Z
S [S,E]
E
F
B
C M L
J
A [S,C] G
H D
K
I N
• Node H receives packet RREQ from two neighbors:
potential for collision
ROUTE DISCOVERY IN DSR

Z
S E
F [S,E,F]
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
[S,C,G] K
I N
• Node C receives RREQ from G and H, but does not forward it again, because node C
has already forwarded RREQ once
 ROUTE DISCOVERY IN DSR

Z
S E
F [S,E,F,J]
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I [S,C,G,K] N
• Nodes J and K both broadcast RREQ to node D
• Since nodes J and K are hidden from each other, their transmissions may collide
 ROUTE DISCOVERY IN DSR

Z
S E
[S,E,F,J,M]
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N
• Node D does not forward RREQ, because node D is the intended target of the route discovery
 ROUTE DISCOVERY IN DSR

• DESTINATION D ON RECEIVING THE FIRST RREQ, SENDS A ROUTE REPLY (RREP)

• RREP IS SENT ON A ROUTE OBTAINED BY REVERSING THE ROUTE APPENDED TO RECEIVED RREQ

• RREP INCLUDES THE ROUTE FROM S TO D ON WHICH RREQ WAS RECEIVED BY NODE D
ROUTE REPLY IN DSR

Z
S RREP [S,E,F,J,D]
E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Represents RREP control message

DYNAMIC SOURCE ROUTING (DSR)
• NODE S ON RECEIVING RREP, CACHES THE ROUTE INCLUDED IN THE RREP
• WHEN NODE S SENDS A DATA PACKET TO D, THE ENTIRE ROUTE IS INCLUDED IN THE PACKET HEADER
• HENCE THE NAME SOURCE ROUTING
• INTERMEDIATE NODES USE THE SOURCE ROUTE INCLUDED IN A PACKET TO DETERMINE TO WHOM A PACKET
SHOULD BE FORWARDED
DATA DELIVERY IN DSR

DATA [S,E,F,J,D] Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Packet header size grows with route length

DYNAMIC SOURCE ROUTING
ADVANTAGES:

• ROUTES MAINTAINED ONLY BETWEEN NODES WHO NEED TO COMMUNICATE

• REDUCES OVERHEAD OF ROUTE MAINTENANCE

• ROUTE CACHING CAN FURTHER REDUCE ROUTE DISCOVERY OVERHEAD

• A SINGLE ROUTE DISCOVERY MAY YIELD MANY ROUTES TO THE DESTINATION, DUE TO INTERMEDIATE NODES REPLYING FROM LOCAL CACHES

DISADVANTAGES:
• PACKET HEADER SIZE GROWS WITH ROUTE LENGTH DUE TO SOURCE ROUTING
• FLOOD OF ROUTE REQUESTS MAY POTENTIALLY REACH ALL NODES IN THE NETWORK
• POTENTIAL COLLISIONS BETWEEN ROUTE REQUESTS PROPAGATED BY NEIGHBORING NODES
• INSERTION OF RANDOM DELAYS BEFORE FORWARDING RREQ
• INCREASED CONTENTION IF TOO MANY ROUTE REPLIES COME BACK DUE TO NODES REPLYING USING THEIR LOCAL CACHE
• ROUTE REPLY STORM PROBLEM
• STALE CACHES WILL LEAD TO INCREASED OVERHEAD
DESTINATION-SEQUENCED DISTANCE-VECTOR (DSDV)
• EACH NODE MAINTAINS A ROUTING TABLE WHICH STORES
• NEXT HOP, COST METRIC TOWARDS EACH DESTINATION
• A SEQUENCE NUMBER THAT IS CREATED BY THE DESTINATION ITSELF
• EACH NODE PERIODICALLY FORWARDS ROUTING TABLE TO NEIGHBORS
• EACH NODE INCREMENTS AND APPENDS ITS SEQUENCE NUMBER WHEN SENDING ITS LOCAL ROUTING TABLE
• EACH ROUTE IS TAGGED WITH A SEQUENCE NUMBER; ROUTES WITH GREATER SEQUENCE NUMBERS ARE
PREFERRED
• EACH NODE ADVERTISES A MONOTONICALLY INCREASING EVEN SEQUENCE NUMBER FOR ITSELF
• WHEN A NODE DECIDES THAT A ROUTE IS BROKEN, IT INCREMENTS THE SEQUENCE NUMBER OF THE ROUTE
AND ADVERTISES IT WITH INFINITE METRIC
• DESTINATION ADVERTISES NEW SEQUENCE NUMBER
 DESTINATION-SEQUENCED DISTANCE-VECTOR (DSDV)

• WHEN X RECEIVES INFORMATION FROM Y ABOUT A ROUTE TO Z

• LET DESTINATION SEQUENCE NUMBER FOR Z AT X BE S(X), S(Y) IS SENT FROM Y

X Y Z

• IF S(X) > S(Y), THEN X IGNORES THE ROUTING INFORMATION RECEIVED FROM Y
• IF S(X) = S(Y), AND COST OF GOING THROUGH Y IS SMALLER THAN THE ROUTE KNOWN TO X, THEN X SETS Y AS
THE NEXT HOP TO Z
• IF S(X) < S(Y), THEN X SETS Y AS THE NEXT HOP TO Z, AND S(X) IS UPDATED TO EQUAL S(Y)
MOBILE TCP
TRADITIONAL TCP
• TRANSPORT LAYER PROVIDE MOBILITY SUPPORT FOR APPLICATIONS. TWO FUNCTIONS OF THE TRANSPORT LAYER IN THE
INTERNET ARE CHECKSUMMING OVER USER DATA AND MULTIPLEXING/ DEMULTIPLEXING OF DATA FROM/TO
APPLICATIONS. WHILE THE NETWORK LAYER ONLY ADDRESSES A HOST, PORTS IN UDP OR TCP ALLOW DEDICATED
APPLICATIONS TO BE ADDRESSED.

• TCP WHICH IS CONNECTION-ORIENTED PROTOCOL IS MUCH MORE COMPLEX AND, NEEDS SPECIAL MECHANISMS TO BE
USEFUL IN MOBILE ENVIRONMENTS COMPARE TO UDP WHICH IS CONNECTION LESS PROTOCOL.
TRADITIONAL TCP:

• SEVERAL MECHANISMS OF THE TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL THAT INFLUENCE THE EFFICIENCY OF TCP IN A
MOBILE ENVIRONMENT ARE AS FOLLOWS:

• CONGESTION CONTROL
• SLOW START
• FAST RETRANSMIT/FAST RECOVERY
CONT…

CONGESTION CONTROL:

• THE PROBABLE REASON FOR A PACKET LOSS IN A FIXED NETWORK IS A TEMPORARY OVERLOAD SOME POINT IN THE
TRANSMISSION PATH, I.E., A STATE OF CONGESTION AT A NODE.

• CONGESTION MAY APPEAR FROM TIME TO TIME EVEN IN CAREFULLY DESIGNED NETWORKS.

• THE PACKET BUFFERS OF A ROUTER ARE FILLED AND THE ROUTER CANNOT FORWARD THE PACKETS FAST ENOUGH BECAUSE THE
SUM OF THE INPUT RATES OF PACKETS DESTINED FOR ONE OUTPUT LINK IS HIGHER THAN THE CAPACITY OF THE OUTPUT LINK.

• THE ONLY THING A ROUTER CAN DO IN THIS SITUATION IS TO DROP PACKETS. A DROPPED PACKET IS LOST FOR THE
TRANSMISSION, AND THE RECEIVER NOTICES A GAP IN THE PACKET STREAM.

• NOW THE RECEIVER DOES NOT DIRECTLY TELL THE SENDER WHICH PACKET IS MISSING, BUT CONTINUES TO ACKNOWLEDGE ALL
IN-SEQUENCE PACKETS UP TO THE MISSING ONE.

• THE SENDER NOTICES THE MISSING ACKNOWLEDGEMENT FOR THE LOST PACKET AND ASSUMES A PACKET LOSS DUE TO
CONGESTION.

• TO MITIGATE CONGESTION, TCP SLOWS DOWN THE TRANSMISSION RATE DRAMATICALLY.

CONT…

SLOW START:

• TCP’SREACTION TO A MISSING ACKNOWLEDGEMENT IS QUITE DRASTIC, BUT IT IS NECESSARY TO GET RID OF

CONGESTION QUICKLY. THE BEHAVIOR TCP SHOWS AFTER THE DETECTION OF CONGESTION IS CALLED SLOW START.

• THE SENDER ALWAYS CALCULATES A CONGESTION WINDOW FOR A RECEIVER. THE START SIZE OF THE CONGESTION
WINDOW IS ONE SEGMENT (TCP PACKET).

• THE SENDER SENDS ONE PACKET AND WAITS FOR ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. IF THIS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ARRIVES, THE
SENDER INCREASES THE CONGESTION WINDOW BY ONE, NOW SENDING TWO PACKETS (CONGESTION WINDOW = 2).

• AFTER ARRIVAL OF THE TWO CORRESPONDING ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS, THE SENDER AGAIN ADDS 2 TO THE CONGESTION
WINDOW, ONE FOR EACH OF THE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. NOW THE CONGESTION WINDOW EQUALS 4.

• THIS SCHEME DOUBLES THE CONGESTION WINDOW EVERY TIME THE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS COME BACK, WHICH TAKES
ONE ROUND TRIP TIME (RTT). THIS IS CALLED THE EXPONENTIAL GROWTH OF THE CONGESTION WINDOW IN THE SLOW
START MECHANISM.
CONT…

• FAST RETRANSMISSION / FAST RECOVERY:

• TWO THINGS LEAD TO A REDUCTION OF THE CONGESTION THRESHOLD. ONE IS A SENDER RECEIVING CONTINUOUS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS FOR THE SAME PACKET. THIS INFORMS THE SENDER OF TWO THINGS. ONE IS THAT THE RECEIVER
GOT ALL PACKETS UP TO THE ACKNOWLEDGED PACKET IN SEQUENCE.

• IN TCP, A RECEIVER SENDS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ONLY IF IT RECEIVES ANY PACKETS FROM THE SENDER. RECEIVING
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS FROM A RECEIVER ALSO SHOWS THAT THE RECEIVER CONTINUOUSLY RECEIVES SOMETHING
FROM THE SENDER.

• THE GAP IN THE PACKET STREAM IS NOT DUE TO SEVERE CONGESTION, BUT A SIMPLE PACKET LOSS DUE TO A
TRANSMISSION ERROR. THE SENDER CAN NOW RETRANSMIT THE MISSING PACKET(S) BEFORE THE TIMER EXPIRES. THIS
IS CALLED FAST RETRANSMIT.

• THE RECEIPT OF ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS SHOWS THAT THERE IS NO CONGESTION TO JUSTIFY A SLOW START. THE SENDER
CAN CONTINUE WITH THE CURRENT CONGESTION WINDOW. THE SENDER PERFORMS A FAST RECOVERY FROM THE
PACKET LOSS. THIS MECHANISM CAN IMPROVE THE EFFICIENCY OF TCP DRAMATICALLY.
CLASSICAL TCP
• TRADITIONAL TCP PERFORMANCE IS ENHANCED FOR WIRELESS AND MOBILE ENVIRONMENTS.
TYPES OF IMPROVEMENT:

• INDIRECT TCP
• SNOOPING TCP
• MOBILE TCP
INDIRECT TCP
• I-TCP SEGMENTS A TCP CONNECTION INTO A FIXED PART AND A WIRELESS PART. MOBILE HOST CONNECTED VIA A WIRELESS LINK AND
AN ACCESS POINT TO THE ‘WIRED’ INTERNET WHERE THE CORRESPONDENT HOST RESIDES. THE CORRESPONDENT NODE COULD ALSO
USE WIRELESS ACCESS.

• STANDARD TCP IS USED BETWEEN THE FIXED COMPUTER AND THE ACCESS POINT. NO COMPUTER IN THE INTERNET RECOGNIZES ANY
CHANGES TO TCP.

• INSTEAD OF THE MOBILE HOST, THE ACCESS POINT NOW TERMINATES THE STANDARD TCP CONNECTION, ACTING AS A PROXY. THIS
MEANS THAT THE ACCESS POINT IS NOW SEEN AS THE MOBILE HOST FOR THE FIXED HOST AND AS THE FIXED HOST FOR THE MOBILE
HOST.

• BETWEEN THE ACCESS POINT AND THE MOBILE HOST, A SPECIAL TCP, ADAPTED TO WIRELESS LINKS, IS USED.

• HOWEVER, CHANGING TCP FOR THE WIRELESS LINK IS NOT A REQUIREMENT. EVEN AN UNCHANGED TCP CAN BENEFIT FROM THE MUCH
SHORTER ROUND TRIP TIME, STARTING RETRANSMISSION MUCH FASTER.
CONT…

• THE FOREIGN AGENT CONTROLS THE MOBILITY OF THE MOBILE HOST ANYWAY AND CAN ALSO HAND OVER THE
CONNECTION TO THE NEXT FOREIGN AGENT WHEN THE MOBILE HOST MOVES ON.

• THE CORRESPONDENT HOST IN THE FIXED NETWORK DOES NOT NOTICE THE WIRELESS LINK OR THE SEGMENTATION OF
THE CONNECTION.

• THE FOREIGN AGENT ACTS AS A PROXY AND RELAYS ALL DATA IN BOTH DIRECTIONS. IF THE CORRESPONDENT HOST
SENDS A PACKET, THE FOREIGN AGENT ACKNOWLEDGES THIS PACKET AND TRIES TO FORWARD THE PACKET TO THE
MOBILE HOST.

• IF THE MOBILE HOST RECEIVES THE PACKET, IT ACKNOWLEDGES THE PACKET. HOWEVER, THIS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT IS
ONLY USED BY THE FOREIGN AGENT.

• IF A PACKET IS LOST ON THE WIRELESS LINK DUE TO A TRANSMISSION ERROR, THE CORRESPONDENT HOST WOULD NOT
NOTICE THIS. IN THIS CASE, THE FOREIGN AGENT TRIES TO RETRANSMIT THIS PACKET LOCALLY TO MAINTAIN RELIABLE
DATA TRANSPORT.
CONT…

I-TCP SOCKET AND STATE MIGRATION

CONT…
ADVANTAGES:
• NO CHANGES IN THE FIXED NETWORK NECESSARY, NO CHANGES FOR THE HOSTS (TCP PROTOCOL) NECESSARY, ALL CURRENT
OPTIMIZATIONS TO TCP STILL WORK

• WIRELESS LINK TRANSMISSION ERRORS ISOLATED FROM THOSE IN FIXED NETWORK

• SIMPLE TO CONTROL, MOBILE TCP IS USED ONLY FOR ONE HOP BETWEEN, E.G., A FOREIGN AGENT AND MOBILE HOST
• THEREFORE, A VERY FAST RETRANSMISSION OF PACKETS IS POSSIBLE, THE SHORT DELAY ON THE MOBILE HOP IS KNOWN.

DISADVANTAGES:

• LOSS OF END-TO-END SEMANTICS, AN ACKNOWLEDGEMENT TO A SENDER DOES NOW NOT ANY LONGER MEAN THAT A
RECEIVER REALLY GOT A PACKET, FOREIGN AGENTS MIGHT CRASH.

• HIGHER LATENCY POSSIBLE DUE TO BUFFERING OF DATA WITHIN THE FOREIGN AGENT AND FORWARDING TO A NEW
FOREIGN AGENT.
SNOOPING TCP
• ONE OF THE DRAWBACKS OF I-TCP IS THE SEGMENTATION OF THE SINGLE TCP CONNECTION INTO TWO TCP CONNECTIONS. THIS LOSES
THE ORIGINAL END-TO-END TCP SEMANTIC.

• SNOOPING TCP WORKS COMPLETELY TRANSPARENTLY AND LEAVES THE TCP END-TO-END CONNECTION INTACT.

• THE MAIN FUNCTION OF SNOOPING TCP IS TO BUFFER DATA CLOSE TO THE MOBILE HOST TO PERFORM FAST LOCAL RETRANSMISSION
IN CASE OF PACKET LOSS.

• IN THIS APPROACH, THE FOREIGN AGENT BUFFERS ALL PACKETS WITH DESTINATION MOBILE HOST AND ADDITIONALLY ‘SNOOPS’ THE
PACKET FLOW IN BOTH DIRECTIONS TO RECOGNIZE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.

• THE REASON FOR BUFFERING PACKETS TOWARD THE MOBILE NODE IS TO ENABLE THE FOREIGN AGENT TO PERFORM A LOCAL
RETRANSMISSION IN CASE OF PACKET LOSS ON THE WIRELESS LINK.

• THE FOREIGN AGENT BUFFERS EVERY PACKET UNTIL IT RECEIVES AN ACKNOWLEDGEMENT FROM THE MOBILE HOST. IF THE FOREIGN
AGENT DOES NOT RECEIVE AN ACKNOWLEDGEMENT FROM THE MOBILE HOST WITHIN A CERTAIN AMOUNT OF TIME, EITHER THE
PACKET OR THE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT HAS BEEN LOST.

• ALTERNATIVELY, THE FOREIGN AGENT COULD RECEIVE A DUPLICATE ACK WHICH ALSO SHOWS THE LOSS OF A PACKET. NOW THE
FOREIGN AGENT RETRANSMITS THE PACKET DIRECTLY FROM THE BUFFER, PERFORMING A MUCH FASTER RETRANSMISSION COMPARED
TO THE CORRESPONDENT HOST.
CONT…
• DATA TRANSFER TO THE MOBILE HOST:
• FA BUFFERS DATA UNTIL IT RECEIVES ACK OF THE MH, FA DETECTS PACKET LOSS VIA DUPLICATED ACKS OR TIME-OUT
• FAST RETRANSMISSION POSSIBLE, TRANSPARENT FOR THE FIXED NETWORK
• DATA TRANSFER FROM THE MOBILE HOST:
• FA DETECTS PACKET LOSS ON THE WIRELESS LINK VIA SEQUENCE NUMBERS, FA ANSWERS DIRECTLY WITH A NACK TO THE
MH

• MH CAN NOW RETRANSMIT DATA WITH ONLY A VERY SHORT DELAY

CONT…
• ADVANTAGES:

• THE END-TO-END TCP SEMANTIC IS PRESERVED.

• THE CORRESPONDENT HOST DOES NOT NEED TO BE CHANGED; MOST OF THE ENHANCEMENTS ARE IN THE FOREIGN AGENT.

• IT DOES NOT NEED A HANDOVER OF STATE AS SOON AS THE MOBILE HOST MOVES TO ANOTHER FOREIGN AGENT. ASSUME
THERE MIGHT STILL BE DATA IN THE BUFFER NOT TRANSFERRED TO THE NEXT FOREIGN AGENT. ALL THAT HAPPENS IS A TIME-
OUT AT THE CORRESPONDENT HOST AND RETRANSMISSION OF THE PACKETS, POSSIBLY ALREADY TO THE NEW CARE-OF
ADDRESS.

• DISADVANTAGES:

• SNOOPING TCP DOES NOT ISOLATE THE BEHAVIOR OF THE WIRELESS LINK AS WELL AS ITCP.

• USING NEGATIVE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS BETWEEN THE FOREIGN AGENT AND THE MOBILE HOST ASSUMES ADDITIONAL
MECHANISMS ON THE MOBILE HOST. THIS APPROACH IS NO LONGER TRANSPARENT FOR ARBITRARY MOBILE HOSTS.

• ALL EFFORTS FOR SNOOPING AND BUFFERING DATA MAY BE USELESS IF CERTAIN ENCRYPTION SCHEMES ARE APPLIED END-TO-
END BETWEEN THE CORRESPONDENT HOST AND MOBILE HOST.
MOBILE TCP
• THE M-TCP (MOBILE TCP) APPROACH HAS THE SAME GOALS AS I-TCP AND SNOOPING TCP: TO PREVENT THE SENDER WINDOW
FROM SHRINKING IF BIT ERRORS OR DISCONNECTION BUT NOT CONGESTION CAUSE CURRENT PROBLEMS.

• M-TCP SPLITS THE TCP CONNECTION INTO TWO PARTS AS I-TCP DOES. AN UNMODIFIED TCP IS USED ON THE STANDARD HOST-
SUPERVISORY HOST (SH) CONNECTION, WHILE AN OPTIMIZED TCP IS USED ON THE SH-MH CONNECTION.

• THE SUPERVISORY HOST IS RESPONSIBLE FOR EXCHANGING DATA BETWEEN BOTH PARTS SIMILAR TO THE PROXY IN ITCP.
• THE M-TCP APPROACH ASSUMES A RELATIVELY LOW BIT ERROR RATE ON THE WIRELESS LINK. THEREFORE, IT DOES NOT
PERFORM CACHING/RETRANSMISSION OF DATA VIA THE SH. IF A PACKET IS LOST ON THE WIRELESS LINK, IT HAS TO BE
RETRANSMITTED BY THE ORIGINAL SENDER. THIS MAINTAINS THE TCP END-TO-END SEMANTICS.

• THE SH MONITORS ALL PACKETS SENT TO THE MH AND ACKS RETURNED FROM THE MH. IF THE SH DOES NOT RECEIVE AN ACK
FOR SOME TIME, IT ASSUMES THAT THE MH IS DISCONNECTED. IT THEN CHOKES THE SENDER BY SETTING THE SENDER’S
WINDOW SIZE TO 0. SETTING THE WINDOW SIZE TO 0 FORCES THE SENDER TO GO INTO PERSISTENT MODE, I.E., THE STATE OF
THE SENDER WILL NOT CHANGE NO MATTER HOW LONG THE RECEIVER IS DISCONNECTED.

• AS SOON AS THE SH DETECTS CONNECTIVITY AGAIN, IT REOPENS THE WINDOW OF THE SENDER TO THE OLD VALUE. THE
SENDER CAN CONTINUE SENDING AT FULL SPEED. THIS MECHANISM DOES NOT REQUIRE CHANGES TO THE SENDER’S TCP.
CONT…

ADVANTAGES:

• IT MAINTAINS THE TCP END-TO-END SEMANTICS. THE SH DOES NOT SEND ANY ACK ITSELF BUT FORWARDS THE ACKS
FROM THE MH.

• IF THE MH IS DISCONNECTED, IT AVOIDS USELESS RETRANSMISSIONS, SLOW STARTS OR BREAKING CONNECTIONS BY

SIMPLY SHRINKING THE SENDER’S WINDOW TO 0.

• SINCE IT DOES NOT BUFFER DATA IN THE SH AS I-TCP DOES, IT IS NOT NECESSARY TO FORWARD BUFFERS TO A NEW SH.
LOST PACKETS WILL BE AUTOMATICALLY RETRANSMITTED TO THE NEW SH.
DISADVANTAGES:

• AS THE SH DOES NOT ACT AS PROXY AS IN I-TCP, PACKET LOSS ON THE WIRELESS LINK DUE TO BIT ERRORS IS
PROPAGATED TO THE SENDER. M-TCP ASSUMES LOW BIT ERROR RATES, WHICH IS NOT ALWAYS A VALID ASSUMPTION.

• A MODIFIED TCP ON THE WIRELESS LINK NOT ONLY REQUIRES MODIFICATIONS TO THE MH PROTOCOL SOFTWARE BUT
ALSO NEW NETWORK ELEMENTS LIKE THE BANDWIDTH MANAGER.
FAST RETRANSMISSION / FAST RECOVERY

• WHEN THERE IS A PACKET LOSS WITHOUT CONGESTION, CACERES (1995) PRESENTED THE IDEA THAT, ARTIFICIALLY FORCE
THE FAST RETRANSMIT BEHAVIOR ON THE MOBILE HOST AND CORRESPONDENT HOST SIDE.

• AS SOON AS THE MOBILE HOST REGISTERS AT A NEW FOREIGN AGENT USING MOBILE IP, IT STARTS SENDING DUPLICATED
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS TO CORRESPONDENT HOSTS. THE PROPOSAL IS TO SEND THREE DUPLICATES.

• THIS FORCES THE CORRESPONDING HOST TO GO INTO FAST RETRANSMIT MODE AND NOT TO START SLOW START, I.E.,
THE CORRESPONDENT HOST CONTINUES TO SEND WITH THE SAME RATE IT DID BEFORE THE MOBILE HOST MOVED TO
ANOTHER FOREIGN AGENT.

• AS THE MOBILE HOST MAY ALSO GO INTO SLOW START AFTER MOVING TO A NEW FOREIGN AGENT, THIS APPROACH
ADDITIONALLY PUTS THE MOBILE HOST INTO FAST RETRANSMIT.

• THE MOBILE HOST RETRANSMITS ALL UNACKNOWLEDGED PACKETS USING THE CURRENT CONGESTION WINDOW SIZE
WITHOUT GOING INTO SLOW START.
CONT…
ADVANTAGE:

• IT’S VERY SIMPLE TO IMPLEMENT.

• ONLY MINOR CHANGES IN THE MOBILE HOST’S SOFTWARE ARE NEEDED WHICH ALREADY RESULT IN A PERFORMANCE
INCREASE.

• NO FOREIGN AGENT OR CORRESPONDENT HOST HAS TO BE CHANGED.

DISADVANTAGES:

• FORCING FAST RETRANSMISSION INCREASES THE EFFICIENCY, BUT RETRANSMITTED PACKETS STILL HAVE TO CROSS THE WHOLE
NETWORK BETWEEN CORRESPONDENT HOST AND MOBILE HOST.

• IF THE HANDOVER FROM ONE FOREIGN AGENT TO ANOTHER TAKES A LONGER TIME, THE CORRESPONDENT HOST WILL HAVE
ALREADY STARTED RETRANSMISSION.

• THE APPROACH FOCUSES ON LOSS DUE TO HANDOVER: PACKET LOSS DUE TO PROBLEMS ON THE WIRELESS LINK IS NOT
CONSIDERED.

• THIS APPROACH REQUIRES MORE COOPERATION BETWEEN THE MOBILE IP AND TCP LAYER MAKING IT HARDER TO CHANGE ONE
WITHOUT INFLUENCING THE OTHER.
TRANSMISSION/TIME-OUT FREEZING
• MOBILE HOSTS CAN BE DISCONNECTED FOR A LONGER TIME.
• NO PACKET EXCHANGE POSSIBLE, E.G., IN A TUNNEL, DISCONNECTION DUE TO OVERLOADED CELLS OR MUX. WITH
HIGHER PRIORITY TRAFFIC.

• THE MAC LAYER HAS ALREADY NOTICED CONNECTION PROBLEMS, BEFORE THE CONNECTION IS ACTUALLY INTERRUPTED
FROM A TCP POINT OF VIEW.

• ADDITIONALLY, THE MAC LAYER KNOWS THE REAL REASON FOR THE INTERRUPTION AND DOES NOT ASSUME
CONGESTION, AS TCP WOULD. THE MAC LAYER CAN INFORM THE TCP LAYER OF AN UPCOMING LOSS OF CONNECTION
OR THAT THE CURRENT INTERRUPTION IS NOT CAUSED BY CONGESTION.

• TCP CAN NOW STOP SENDING AND ‘FREEZES’ THE CURRENT STATE OF ITS CONGESTION WINDOW AND FURTHER TIMERS.
• AS SOON AS THE MAC LAYER DETECTS CONNECTIVITY AGAIN, IT SIGNALS TCP THAT IT CAN RESUME OPERATION AT
EXACTLY THE SAME POINT WHERE IT HAD BEEN FORCED TO STOP. FOR TCP TIME SIMPLY DOES NOT ADVANCE, SO NO
TIMERS EXPIRE.
CONT…

ADVANTAGES:

• IT OFFERS A WAY TO RESUME TCP CONNECTIONS EVEN AFTER LONGER INTERRUPTIONS OF THE CONNECTION.
• IT IS INDEPENDENT OF ANY OTHER TCP MECHANISM, SUCH AS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS OR SEQUENCE NUMBERS, SO IT
CAN BE USED TOGETHER WITH ENCRYPTED DATA.
DISADVANTAGES:

• NOT ONLY DOES THE SOFTWARE ON THE MOBILE HOST HAVE TO BE CHANGED, TO BE MORE EFFECTIVE THE
CORRESPONDENT HOST CANNOT REMAIN UNCHANGED.

• ALL MECHANISMS RELY ON THE CAPABILITY OF THE MAC LAYER TO DETECT FUTURE INTERRUPTIONS.
• FREEZING THE STATE OF TCP DOES NOT HELP IN CASE OF SOME ENCRYPTION SCHEMES THAT USE TIME-DEPENDENT
RANDOM NUMBERS.

• THESE SCHEMES NEED RESYNCHRONIZATION AFTER INTERRUPTION.

SELECTIVE RETRANSMISSION

• TCP ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ARE CUMULATIVE, I.E., THEY ACKNOWLEDGE IN-ORDER RECEIPT OF PACKETS UP
TO A CERTAIN PACKET.

• IF A SINGLE PACKET IS LOST, THE SENDER HAS TO RETRANSMIT EVERYTHING STARTING FROM THE LOST
PACKET (GO-BACK-N RETRANSMISSION).

• THIS WASTES BANDWIDTH, NOT JUST IN THE CASE OF A MOBILE NETWORK, BUT FOR ANY NETWORK.
• USING RFC 2018 (MATHIS, 1996), TCP CAN INDIRECTLY REQUEST A SELECTIVE RETRANSMISSION OF PACKETS.
THE RECEIVER CAN ACKNOWLEDGE SINGLE PACKETS, NOT ONLY TRAINS OF IN-SEQUENCE PACKETS. THE
SENDER CAN NOW DETERMINE PRECISELY WHICH PACKET IS NEEDED AND CAN RETRANSMIT IT.
CONT…

ADVANTAGES:

• A SENDER RETRANSMITS ONLY THE LOST PACKETS.

• THIS LOWERS BANDWIDTH REQUIREMENTS AND IS EXTREMELY HELPFUL IN SLOW WIRELESS LINKS.
• THE GAIN IN EFFICIENCY IS NOT RESTRICTED TO WIRELESS LINKS AND MOBILE ENVIRONMENTS. USING
SELECTIVE RETRANSMISSION IS ALSO BENEFICIAL IN ALL OTHER NETWORKS.
DISADVANTAGE:

• ITREQUIRES MORE COMPLEX SOFTWARE ON THE RECEIVER SIDE, BECAUSE NOW MORE BUFFER IS
NECESSARY TO RE-SEQUENCE DATA AND TO WAIT FOR GAPS TO BE FILLED.
THANK YOU!!!