Introduction to Psychology

Memory
Memory

Memory is the set of processes used to encode, store, and

retrieve information over time
Memory: Encoding, Storage, Retrieval

• Encoding inputs information into the memory system

• Storage is the retention of the encoded information
• Retrieval is getting the information out of memory and back
into awareness
Three Types of Encoding

• Acoustic encoding: input of sounds, words, and music

• Semantic encoding: input of words and their meaning
• Visual encoding: input of images
• Recoding: taking the information from the form it is
delivered to us and then converting it in a way that we can
make sense of it
Three Stages of Storage

Information passes through three distinct stages in order for it to be stored in long-term
memory.
Components of Long-term Memory
Retrieval
• Recall: accessing information without cues
• Recognition: identifying previously learned information after encountering it
again, usually in response to a cue
• Encoding specificity principle: the hypothesis that a retrieval cue will be
effective to the extent that information encoded from the cue overlaps or
matches information in the engram or memory trace.
• Relearning: learning information that was previously learned
Memory in the Brain

The amygdala is involved in emotional memories. The hippocampus is associated

with declarative and episodic memory as well as recognition memory
The cerebellum plays a role in processing procedural memories, such as how to
play the piano. The prefrontal cortex appears to be involved in remembering
semantic tasks
Memory Problems: Amnesia

• Amnesia: loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result of

disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma
• Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories
• Retrograde Amnesia: loss of memory for events that occurred prior to brain
trauma
Why We Forget
Memory Errors
Sin Type Description Example
Accessibility of memory Forget events that
Transience Forgetting
decreases over time occurred long ago
Forgetting caused by lapses Forget where your phone
Absentmindedness Forgetting
in attention is

Accessibility of information
Blocking Forgetting Tip of the tongue
is temporarily blocked

Recalling a dream
Source of memory is
Misattribution Distortion memory as a waking
confused
memory
Result from leading
Suggestibility Distortion False memories
questions

Memories distorted by Align memories to

Bias Distortion
current belief system current beliefs

Inability to forget
Persistence Intrusion Traumatic events
undesirable memories
Forgetting: Interference

Forgetting may be caused by failure to retrieve information

This can be due to interference, either retroactive or proactive
Why is Eyewitness Testimony Unreliable?

• Suggestibility: Effects of misinformation from external sources lead to the

creation of false memories
• Misinformation effect: Given incorrect information, witnesses may
misremember the original event
Memory Enhancing Strategies

Techniques to help make sure information goes from short-term memory to long-
term memory include:
• Rehearsal
• Chunking
• Elaborative rehearsal
• Mnemonic device
How to Study

• Use elaborative rehearsal

• Apply the self-reference effect
• Don’t forget the forgetting curve
• Rehearse, rehearse, rehearse
• Be aware of interference
• Keep moving
• Get enough sleep
• Make use of mnemonic devices
Practice Problem

Use a memory enhancing strategy presented in this section to

remember the different types of amnesia and the different
types of interference
Quick Review

• Explain the three types of encoding

• Describe the three stages of memory storage
• Describe and distinguish between procedural and declarative
memory and semantic and episodic memory
• Explain retrieval cues and define recall, recognition, and
relearning
• Explain the brain functions involved in memory; recognize
the roles of the hippocampus, amygdala, and cerebellum in
memory
More Quick Review

• Compare and contrast anterograde and retrograde amnesia

• Explain encoding failure and give examples of common
memory errors
• Describe the unreliability of eyewitness testimony
• Explain the misinformation effect
• Recognize and apply memory-enhancing strategies,
including mnemonics, rehearsal, chunking, and peg-words