CHAPTER 9:

MECHANICAL FAILURE
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How do flaws in a material initiate failure?
• How is fracture resistance quantified; how do different
material classes compare?
• How do we estimate the stress to fracture?
• How do loading rate, loading history, and temperature
affect the failure stress?

Ship-cyclic loading Computer chip-cyclic Hip implant-cyclic

from waves. thermal loading. loading from walking.
Adapted from Fig. 8.0, Callister 6e. (Fig. 8.0 Adapted from Fig. 18.11W(b), Callister 6e. Adapted from Fig.
is by Neil Boenzi, The New York Times.) (Fig. 18.11W(b) is courtesy of National 17.19(b), Callister 6e.
Semiconductor Corporation.)
1
 EX: FAILURE OF A PIPE
• Ductile failure:
--one piece
--large deformation

• Brittle failure:
--many pieces
--small deformation

Figures from V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser,

Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.),
Fig. 4.1(a) and (b), p. 66 John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1987. Used with permission.

3
 MODERATELY DUCTILE FAILURE
• Evolution to failure:
void void growth shearing
necking fracture
nucleation and linkage at surface


• Resulting 50m
50 m
fracture
surfaces
(steel)
100 m
particles From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Fracture surface of tire cord wire loaded
serve as void Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), in tension. Courtesy of F. Roehrig, CC
Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Wiley and Sons, Technologies, Dublin, OH. Used with
nucleation Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: P. Thornton, J. permission.
sites. Mater. Sci., Vol. 6, 1971, pp. 347-56.)
4
 BRITTLE FRACTURE SURFACES
• Intergranular
(between grains)
4 mm
• Intragranular
304 S. Steel (within grains)
(metal) 316 S. Steel
Reprinted w/permission from (metal)
"Metals Handbook", 9th ed, Reprinted w/ permission
Fig. 633, p. 650. Copyright from "Metals Handbook",
1985, ASM International, 9th ed, Fig. 650, p. 357.
Materials Park, OH. Copyright 1985, ASM
(Micrograph by J.R. Keiser International, Materials Park,
and A.R. Olsen, Oak Ridge OH. (Micrograph by D.R.
National Lab.) Diercks, Argonne National 160m
Lab.)

Polypropylene Al Oxide
(polymer) (ceramic)
Reprinted w/ permission Reprinted w/ permission
from R.W. Hertzberg, from "Failure Analysis of
"Defor-mation and Brittle Materials", p. 78.
Fracture Mechanics of Copyright 1990, The
Engineering Materials", American Ceramic Society,
(4th ed.) Fig. 7.35(d), p. Westerville, OH.
303, John Wiley and Sons, (Micrograph by R.M. Gruver
Inc., 1996. and H. Kirchner.)
3m
1 mm
(Orig. source: K. Friedrick, Fracture 1977, Vol. 3,
5
ICF4, Waterloo, CA, 1977, p. 1119.)
 IDEAL VS REAL MATERIALS
• Stress-strain behavior (Room T):
 perfect mat’l-no flaws
E/10 TS engineering << TS perfect
carefully produced glass fiber materials materials

E/100 typical ceramic typical strengthened metal

typical polymer
0.1
• DaVinci (500 yrs ago!) observed...
--the longer the wire, the
smaller the load to fail it.
• Reasons:
--flaws cause premature failure.

Reprinted w/
permission from R.W.
Hertzberg,
"Deformation and
Fracture Mechanics of
Engineering Materials",
(4th ed.) Fig. 7.4. John
Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
1996.

--Larger samples are more flawed!

6
 FLAWS ARE STRESS
CONCENTRATORS!
• Elliptical hole in • Stress distrib. in front of a hole:
a plate: o  a 
max  o 2  1
 t 


2a
t

• Stress conc. factor: Kt   max / o

• Large Kt promotes failure:

NOT
SO Kt =3 BAD! K t >>3
BAD
7
 ENGINEERING FRACTURE DESIGN
• Avoid sharp corners!
o  max
Stress Conc. Factor, K t= 
w o
max
2.5
r, h
fillet 2.0 increasing w/h
radius
Adapted from Fig. 8.2W(c), 1.5
Callister 6e.
(Fig. 8.2W(c) is from G.H.
Neugebauer, Prod. Eng.
(NY), Vol. 14, pp. 82-87 1.0 r/h
1943.)
0 0.5 1.0
sharper fillet radius
8
 WHEN DOES A CRACK PROPAGATE?

• t at a crack
tip is very
small!

• Result: crack tip K

 tip  tip 
stress is very large. 2x

• Crack propagates when: increasing K

the tip stress is large
enough to make:
distance, x,
K ≥ Kc from crack tip

9
 GEOMETRY, LOAD, & MATERIAL
• Condition for crack propagation:
K ≥ Kc
Stress Intensity Factor: Fracture Toughness:
--Depends on load & --Depends on the material,
geometry. temperature, environment, &
rate of loading.
• Values of K for some standard loads & geometries:
 
units of K :
MPa m
2a a
2a or ksi in
Adapted from Fig. 8.8,
Callister 6e.

K   a K  1.1 a
10
 FRACTURE TOUGHNESS
Graphite/
K metals
c

increasing
Metals/ Composites/
Alloys
Ceramics/ Polymers
fibers comp
Semicond Kc
100
C-C (|| fibers) 1
70 Steels cer  poly
60 Ti alloys
Kc Kc
50
40
Al alloys
30 Mg alloys Based on data in Table B5,
KIc (MPa · m 0.5 )

Callister 6e.
20 Composite reinforcement geometry is: f =
Al/Al oxide(sf) 2
fibers; sf = short fibers; w = whiskers; p =
Y2 O 3 /ZrO 2 (p) 4 particles. Addition data as noted (vol.
10 C/C ( fibers) 1 fraction of reinforcement):
Al oxid/SiC(w) 3 1. (55vol%) ASM Handbook, Vol. 21, ASM Int.,
Diamond Si nitr/SiC(w) 5 Materials Park, OH (2001) p. 606.
7 Al oxid/ZrO 2 (p) 4 2. (55 vol%) Courtesy J. Cornie, MMC, Inc.,
6 Si carbide Glass/SiC(w) 6 Waltham, MA.
5 Al oxide PET 3. (30 vol%) P.F. Becher et al., Fracture Mechanics
4 Si nitride of Ceramics, Vol. 7, Plenum Press (1986). pp. 61-73.
PP 4. Courtesy CoorsTek, Golden, CO.
3 PVC 5. (30 vol%) S.T. Buljan et al., "Development of
Ceramic Matrix Composites for Application in
2 PC Technology for Advanced Engines Program",
ORNL/Sub/85-22011/2, ORNL, 1992.
6. (20vol%) F.D. Gace et al., Ceram. Eng. Sci.
Proc., Vol. 7 (1986) pp. 978-82.
1 <100>
Si crystal PS Glass 6
<111>
0.7 Glass -soda
0.6 Polyester
Concrete 11
0.5
 DESIGN AGAINST CRACK
•
GROWTH
Crack growth condition: K ≥ Kc
Y a
• Largest, most stressed cracks grow first!
--Result 1: Max flaw size --Result 2: Design stress
dictates design stress. dictates max. flaw size.
Kc 1  Kc 2
design  a max   
Y a max  
Ydesign


a max

fracture fracture
no no
fracture a max fracture 
12
 DESIGN EX: AIRCRAFT WING
• Material has Kc = 26 MPa-m0.5
• Two designs to consider...
Design A Design B
--largest flaw is 9 mm --use same material
--failure stress = 112 MPa --largest flaw is 4 mm
Kc --failure stress = ?
• Use... c 
Y a max
• Key point: Y and Kc are the same in both designs.
--Result: 112 MPa 9 mm 4 mm

c a max A  c a max B

Answer: c B  168 MPa
• Reducing flaw size pays off!
13
 LOADING RATE

• Increased loading rate... TS
y larger 
--increases y and TS
--decreases %EL TS
• Why? An increased rate y
gives less time for disl. to small er 
move past obstacles. 

• Impact loading: sample (Charpy)

--severe testing case
--more brittle
--smaller toughness
Adapted from Fig. 8.11(a) and (b),
Callister 6e. (Fig. 8.11(b) is adapted
from H.W. Hayden, W.G. Moffatt,
and J. Wulff, The Structure and
Properties of Materials, Vol. III,
final height initial height
Mechanical Behavior, John Wiley
and Sons, Inc. (1965) p. 13.)
14
 TEMPERATURE
• Increasing temperature...
--increases %EL and Kc
• Ductile-to-brittle transition temperature (DBTT)...

et als (e .g . , Cu, Ni)

FCC m

BCC metals (e.g., iron at T < 914C)

Impact Energy

polymers
Brittle More Ductile

High strength materials ( y >E/150)

Adapted from C. Barrett, W. Nix,
and A.Tetelman, The Principles
of Engineering Materials, Fig. 6-21, p.
Temperature 220, Prentice-Hall, 1973.
Electronically reproduced by permission of
Ductile-to-brittle Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle
transition temperature River, New
Jersey.
15
 DESIGN STRATEGY:
STAY ABOVE THE DBTT!
• Pre-WWII: The Titanic
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(a), p. 262, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Dr. Robert D. Ballard, The
Discovery of the Titanic.)
• Problem: Used a type of steel with a DBTT ~ Room temp.
• WWII: Liberty ships
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(b), p. 262, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Earl R. Parker, "Behavior
of Engineering Structures", Nat. Acad. Sci., Nat. Res.
Council, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY, 1957.)
16
 FATIGUE
• Fatigue = failure under cyclic stress.
specimen compression on top
Adapted from Fig. 8.16,
Callister 6e. (Fig. 8.16 is
bearing motor counter from Materials Science in
bearing Engineering, 4/E by Carl. A.
Keyser, Pearson Education,
flex coupling Inc., Upper Saddle River,
tension on bottom NJ.)

• Stress varies with time. 

max
--key parameters are S and m S
m
min time
• Key points: Fatigue...
--can cause part failure, even though max < c.
--causes ~ 90% of mechanical engineering failures.

17
 FATIGUE DESIGN PARAMETERS
S = stress amplitude
• Fatigue limit, Sfat: case for
unsafe steel (typ.)
--no fatigue if S < Sfat
S fat
safe
Adapted from Fig.
8.17(a), Callister 6e.

10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure
• Sometimes, the
fatigue limit is zero! S = stress amplitude
case for
unsafe Al (typ.)

safe Adapted from Fig. 8.17(b),

Callister 6e.

10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure
18
 FATIGUE MECHANISM
• Crack grows incrementally
typ. 1 to 6
da
 K 
m
dN ~   a
increase in crack length per loading cycle
crack origin
• Failed rotating shaft
--crack grew even though
Kmax < Kc
--crack grows faster if
•  increases Adapted from
Fig. 8.19, Callister 6e.
• crack gets longer (Fig. 8.19 is from D.J.
• loading freq. increases. Wulpi, Understanding
How Components Fail,
American Society for
Metals, Materials Park,
OH, 1985.)

19
 IMPROVING FATIGUE LIFE
1. Impose a compressive S = stress amplitude
Adapted from
surface stress Fig. 8.22, Callister 6e.

(to suppress surface near zero or compressive m

cracks from growing) moderate tensile m
larger tensile m

N = Cycles to failure

--Method 1: shot peening --Method 2: carburizing

shot
C-rich gas
put
surface
into
compression

2. Remove stress bad better

concentrators. Adapted from
Fig. 8.23, Callister 6e.
bad better
20
 PROCESSING USING DIFFUSION (1)
• Case Hardening:
--Diffuse carbon atoms Fig. 5.0,
Callister 6e.
into the host iron atoms (Fig. 5.0 is
courtesy of
at the surface. Surface
Division,
--Example of interstitial Midland-
Ross.)
diffusion is a case
hardened gear.

• Result: The "Case" is

--hard to deform: C atoms
"lock" planes from shearing.
--hard to crack: C atoms put
the surface in compression.

21
 MEASURING ELEVATED T RESPONSE
• Elevated Temperature Tensile Test (T > 0.4 Tmelt).
creep test


x
.
slope = ss = steady-state creep rate

time

• Generally,
. ceramics . metals . polymers
ss  ss  ss

22
 CREEP
• Occurs at elevated temperature, T > 0.4 Tmelt
• Deformation changes with time.

 strain, 
 INCREASING T

tertiary
0 t
primary secondary

elastic T < 0.4 T m

time
0 Adapted from
Figs. 8.26 and 8.27,
Callister 6e.

23
 SECONDARY CREEP
• Most of component life spent here.
• Strain rate is constant at a given T, 
--strain hardening is balanced by recovery
stress exponent (material parameter)
. n
 Q c 
s  K2  exp   activation energy for creep
strain rate  RT  (material parameter)
material const. applied stress
Adapted from
• Strain rate 2 00 Stress (MPa) Fig. 8.29, Callister 6e.
427C (Fig. 8.29 is from Metals
increases 10 0 Handbook: Properties
and Selection: Stainless
for larger T,  538 C Steels, Tool Materials, and
40 Special Purpose Metals,
Vol. 3, 9th ed., D.
20 Benjamin (Senior Ed.),
649 C American Society for
10 Metals, 1980, p. 131.)

10 -2 10 -1 1
Steady state creep rate s
(%/1000hr)
24
 CREEP FAILURE
• Failure: • Estimate rupture time
along grain boundaries. S 590 Iron, T = 800C,  = 20 ksi
g.b. cavities 100
Adapted from
Fig. 8.45, Callister 6e.
(Fig. 8.45 is from F.R.
Larson and J. Miller,
applied Trans. ASME, 74, 765
20

Stress, ksi
stress (1952).)
10

data for
From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of S-590 Iron
Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig. 4.32, p. 87, John 1
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: Pergamon Press, 12 16 20 24 28
Inc.)
L(10 3 K-log hr) 24x103 K-log hr
• Time to rupture, tr
T(20  log t r )  L T(20  log t r )  L
temperature function of 1073K
applied stress
time to failure (rupture) Ans: tr = 233hr
25
 SUMMARY
• Engineering materials don't reach theoretical strength.
• Flaws produce stress concentrations that cause
premature failure.
• Sharp corners produce large stress concentrations
and premature failure.
• Failure type depends on T and stress:
-for noncyclic  and T < 0.4Tm, failure stress decreases with:
increased maximum flaw size,
decreased T,
increased rate of loading.
-for cyclic :
cycles to fail decreases as  increases.
-for higher T (T > 0.4Tm):
time to fail decreases as  or T increases.
26
 ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading:

Core Problems:

Self-help Problems: