PERSONALITY

LETZ STIMULATE

 Situation 1 :-
Suppose that you are new to the organisation, and not
familiar to your colleague. You get a chance to interact with them in
this party.

What will you do in this situation?

a) You will take the initiative to talk

b) Feel strange and nervous so will not talk with others
c) You will wait for someone else to talk to you
d) you will stand and smile to others.
 Situation 2

 You have been given a group project. You have made

a mistake in between and only you are aware of it.
How will you react on it?

 a) you will confess that you have made the mistake.

 b) you will held someone else to be responsible for
the mistake
 c) you will try to find out the solution for it
 d) you will keep mum all through out the project.

16.01.2010/ Reshmi
Pillai/OB
 What is Personality?
When we talk of personality, we don’t mean that a person has
charm, a positive attitude toward life, a smiling face, or is a
finalist for “ Happiest and Friendliest” in this year’s Miss
America contest.
When psychologists talk of personality, they mean a dynamic
concept describing the growth and development of a person’s
whole psychological system.
Rather than looking at parts of the person, personality looks
at some aggregate whole that is greater than the sum of the
parts.
What is Personality?
 Personality – Definition
 Refers to a set if unique characteristics that
makes an individual different from others .
 Nature : Internal and external element s,
relatively stable , Inherited(Characteristics) and
dependant on the environment.
Determinants of Personality
 Personality Determinants
• •Heredity
Heredity
• •Environment
Environment
• •Situation
Situation

Heredity: Refers to those factors that were determined at conception.

Physical structure, facial attractiveness, gender, temperament, energy
level etc.
Environment: Among the factors that exert pressures on our personality
formation are the culture in which we are raised, our early conditioning,
the norms among our family, friends and social groups etc.
Situation: A third, the situation, influences the effects of heredity and
environment on personality. An individual’s generally stable and
consistent, does change in different situations.
 Personality Traits

 Enduring characteristics that describe an individual’s

behavior.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

The Big Five Model

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
A personality test that taps four characteristics and
classifies people into 1 of 16 personality types.

Personality
PersonalityTypes
Types
• •Extroverted
Extrovertedvs.
vs.Introverted
Introverted(E (EororI)I)
• •Sensing
Sensingvs.
vs.Intuitive
Intuitive(S(Sor
orN)
N)
• •Thinking
Thinkingvs.
vs.Feeling
Feeling(T(Tor
orF)F)
• •Judging
Judgingvs.
vs.Perceiving
Perceiving(P (Por
orJ)J)
 Extroverted vs. Introverted

Extroverted individuals are outgoing, sociable, and (Confident) assertive.

Introverts are quiet and shy.

 Sensitive vs. Intuitive

Sensing types are practical and prefer routine and order. They focus on details.
Intuitive rely on unconscious processes and look at the “big picture”.

 Thinking vs. Feeling

Thinking types uses reason and logic to handle problems. Feelings types rely on
their personal values and emotions.

 Judging vs. Perceiving

Judging types want control, and prefer their world to be ordered and structured.
Perceiving types are flexible and spontaneous.
 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
Extrovert (E)
Type of Social
Interaction Introvert (I)

Preference for Sensing (S)

Gathering Data Intuitive (N)

Feeling (F)
Preference for
Decision Making Thinking (T)

Perceptive (P)
Style of
Decision Making Judgmental (J)

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Pillai/OB
Extraversion Introversion
Interest Orientation

E Talkative, Shy, I
Sociable, Reserved,
Friendly, Quite,
Outspoken

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Pillai/OB
Sensing Intuition
Perception

S Organised, Less Regular, N

Practical, Unconscious,
Focus Detail. Focus Big
Picture

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Thinking Feeling
Judgment

T Reliability of
logical order
Priorities
based on
F
– cause and personal
effect, Apathy importance
and values,
Sympathy
Judgment Perception
Environment Orientation

J Judging
attitude –
Spontaneity –
Curious,
P
Control of awaiting
events and events and
systematic adapting to
planning them,
Flexible

16.01.2010/ Reshmi
Pillai/OB
 ISTJ ISFJ INFJ INTJ
“Take Your Time “On My Honor, to “Catalyst for Positive “Competence +
and Do It Right” Do My Duty…” Change” Independence =
Perfection”

ISTP ISFP INFP INTP

“Doing the Best I “It’s the Thought “Still Waters Run “Ingenious Problem
Can With What I’ve That Counts” Deep” Solvers”
Got”

ESTP ESFP ENFP ENTP

“Let’s Get Busy!” “Don’t Worry, Be “Anything’s “Life’s
Happy” Possible” Entrepreneurs”

ESTJ ESFJ ENFJ ENTJ

“Taking Care of “What Can I Do For “The Public “Everything’s Fine –
Business” You?” Relations Specialist” I’m in Charge”

16.01.2010/ Reshmi
Pillai/OB
Myers-
Briggs
Sixteen
Primary
Traits
 Conscientiousness

Extroversion

Agreeableness

Emotional stability Openness to Experience

 Extraversion

Agreeableness

The
Big Five Personality Conscientiousness
Model

Emotional Stability

Openness to Experience
The Big Five Model
 Personality
Personality Structure
Structure (The
(The “Big
“Big Five”
Five”Traits)
Traits)
Characteristics of a person
Dimension
Scoring +vely on the dimension

Extroversion Outgoing, Talkative, Sociable,

Assertive

Agreeableness Trusting, good natured,

Cooperative, softhearted

Dependable, responsible,
Conscientiousness
Achievement-oriented

Emotional Stability Relaxed, Secure, Unworried

Openness to Sensitive, Intellectual,

Experience Imaginative, Broadminded
4–22
 The Big Five Personality Dimensions
 Extraversion:

 Agreeableness:

 Conscientiousness:
 Emotional stability:

 Openness to experience:
Research finding: Conscientiousness is the best (but not a strong) predictor
of job performance
 Extraversion

Openness to experience

Conscientiousness

Agreeableness

Emotional stability
Outgoing, talkative, sociable, assertive
Trusting, good natured, cooperative, soft hearted
Dependable, responsible, achievement oriented, persistent
Intellectual, imaginative, curious, broad minded
Relaxed, secure, unworried
 Major
MajorPersonality
PersonalityAttributes
AttributesInfluencing
InfluencingOB
OB

Achievement orientation
Authoritative

Locus of Self Esteem

Control Personality Traits

Risk taking

Machiavellianism

Self-Monitoring

Introverts/
Extroverts

Type A & B
 Locus Self-Esteem
of Control

Other Key
Machiavellian Self
Personality
Personality Monitoring
Attributes

Risk Type A
Propensity Proactive Personality Personality
Major Personality Attributes Influencing OB
Locus of Control
The degree to which people believe they
are masters of their own fate.

Internals
Individuals who believe that they
control what happens to them.

Externals
Individuals who believe that
what happens to them is
controlled by outside forces
such as luck or chance.
Relationship Between LOC & some other factors

Job Satisfaction

LOC Absenteeism

Turnover
 FACTORS INTERNALS EXTERNALS

Job Satisfaction Satisfied More dissatisfied

Absenteeism Less absenteeism Depends on their luck

or chance

Turnover No clear relationship Depends on their luck

or chance
HIGH MACS are:

• Pragmatic
• Maintains emotional distance
• Believes that ends can justify the means
• Manipulate more
• Win more
• Persuaded less
• Persuade others more

Persuaded by 3 factors

- Face-to-face interaction
- Situation having minimum number of rules & regulations ,allowing latitude
for improvisation
- Emotional involvement with details irrelevant
 Machiavellianism
Degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains
emotional distance, and believes that ends justify
means.

“If it works, use it” is consistent with a high-Mach

perspective.

Conditions
ConditionsFavoring
FavoringHigh
HighMachs
Machs
••Direct
Directinteraction
interaction
••Minimal
Minimalrules
rulesand
andregulations
regulations
••Distracting
Distractingemotions
emotions
 Machiavellianism
 People with a high-Machiavellian personality:

-- Approach situations logically and thoughtfully.

-- Are capable of lying to achieve personal goals.

-- Are rarely swayed by loyalty, friendships, past

promises, or others’ opinions.

-- Are skilled at influencing others.

-- Try to exploit loosely structured situations.

-- Perform in a perfunctory or detached manner in

highly structured situations.
 Machiavellianism
 People with a low-Machiavellian personality:

-- Accept direction imposed by others in loosely

structured situations.

-- Work hard to do well in highly structured

situations.

-- Are strongly guided by ethical considerations.

-- Are unlikely to lie or cheat.

 Self Esteem

 The degree to which a person likes or dislikes himself

 It is directly related to expectations for success

2 TYPES:

1. High Self Esteem

 They believe that they possess the ability they need to succeed at work
 Will take more risks in job selection
 And more likely to choose unconventional jobs than people with low self
esteem
 They will not be susceptible to the external influences
 They are more satisfied with their job
2. Low Self Esteem:

• They seek appreciation from others

• Seek approval from others and try to conform to the beliefs and behaviors of
those they respect

• They try to please others and therefore they would not take unpopular
stands than high Self Esteemed employees
 Ability to adjust one’s behavior to external situational factors

 Capable of presenting striking contradictions between their public persona

& private self

 Tend to pay closer behavior of others & more capable of conforming than
low self monitoring

 Capable of putting different “faces” for different audiences

Self-Esteem and Self-Monitoring
Self-Esteem (SE)
Individuals’ degree of liking
or disliking themselves.

Self-Monitoring
A personality trait that measures
an individuals ability to adjust
his or her behavior to external,
situational factors.
 Risk-Taking
 High Risk-taking Managers
 Make quicker decisions
 Use less information to make decisions
 Operate in smaller and more entrepreneurial
organizations
 Low Risk-taking Managers
 Are slower to make decisions
 Require more information before making decisions
 Exist in larger organizations with stable
environments
•Quick Decision making

•Specific to jobs (stocks) (accounts)

Personality
PersonalityTypes
Types
 Personality Types
Type A’s
1. are always moving, walking, and eating rapidly;
2. feel impatient with the rate at which most events take place;
3. strive to think or do two or more things at once;
4. cannot cope with leisure time;
5. are obsessed with numbers, measuring their success in
terms of how many or how much of everything they
acquire.

Type B’s
1. never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its
accompanying impatience;
2. feel no need to display or discuss either their achievements
or accomplishments;
3. play for fun and relaxation, rather than to exhibit their
superiority at any cost;
4. can relax without guilt.
 Personality Types
Proactive Personality
Identifies opportunities,
shows initiative, takes
action, and perseveres
until meaningful change
occurs.
Creates positive change
in the environment,
regardless or even in
spite of constraints or
obstacles.
 Achieving Person-Job Fit
Personality-Job Fit Theory
(Holland)
Identifies six personality Personality
PersonalityTypes
Types
types and proposes that ••Realistic
Realistic
the fit between personality ••Investigative
type and occupational Investigative
••Social
Social
environment determines
satisfaction and turnover. ••Conventional
Conventional
••Enterprising
Enterprising
Person-Organization Fit ••Artistic
Artistic
 Holland’s
Typology of
Personality
and
Congruent
Occupations
IN AN ORGANIZATION
DOMINANT PERSONALITY:
 Be clear, direct, and to the point when you interact.
 Avoid being too personal or talking too much about non-work items.
 Let them know what you expect of them. If you must direct them, provide choices that give

them the opportunity to make decisions to satisfy their need to be "in control.
 Accept their need for variety and change. When possible, provide new challenges, as well as

opportunities to direct the efforts of others.

 The person is motivated by personal control through direct communication. Compliment them

for results they achieve.

 They are "bottom line" oriented. Ask them about their career plans and timetables for achieving

success. Show how they can get results by helping you get results.
INFLUENCING PERSONALITY:

 You'll need to communicate more with people of this style, and it'll often involve social

interaction.

 Give them lots of your time.

 Compliment them.

 Ask about things going on in their lives outside of work.

 Let them share with you their goals at work and elsewhere.

 Link your objectives to their dreams and goals.

STEADY PERSONALITY:

 Acknowledge that their efforts help others.

 Provide opportunities for them to cooperate with others on the team to achieve desired results.

 Provide specific direction and offer assurances when necessary.

 When implementing change, be sure to lay out a systematic, step-by-step procedure and draw

out their concerns and worries about the situation. They need to feel secure.

 Assure them that you've thought things through before initiating changes. Give them a plan to

deal with problems when they occur.

CONSCIENTIOUS PERSONALITY:
 Opportunities to demonstrate their expertise.

 Plenty of details.

 Enough time to prepare for meetings properly.....especially if they have an

item on the agenda to present.

 Situations where their systematic approach will contribute to long-term

success.
“ WE DON’T SEE THINGS AS THEY ARE,

WE SEE THINGS AS WE ARE.”

 Perception

“ The study of perception is concerned with identifying the process

through which we interpret and organize sensory information to
produce our conscious experience of objects and object relationship.”

“ Perception is the process of receiving information about and making

sense of the world around us. It involves deciding which
information to notice, how to categorize this information and how
to interpret it within the framework of existing knowledge.

“ A process by which individuals organize and interpret their

sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their
environment.
The Perceptual Process
1. Sensation
 An individual’s ability
to detect stimuli in the
immediate environment.
2. Selection
 The process a person
uses to eliminate some
of the stimuli that have
been sensed and to
retain others for further
processing.
3. Organization
 The process of placing
selected perceptual
stimuli into a framework
for “storage.”
4. Translation
 The stage of the
perceptual process at
which stimuli are
interpreted and given
meaning.
 Perceptual Process Selecting Stimuli
External factors : Nature,
Receiving Stimuli Location,Size,contrast,
(External & Internal) Movement,repetition,similarity
Internal factors : Learning,
needs,age,Interest,

Organizing
Interpreting Figure Background ,
Attribution ,Stereotyping, Perceptual Grouping
Halo Effect, Projection ( similarity, proximity,
closure, continuity)

Response
Covert: Attitudes ,
Motivation,
Feeling
Overt: Behavior
Factors that Influence Perception

The Situation The Perceiver

• Time • Attitudes
• W ork setting • Motives
• Social setting • Interests
• Experience
• Expectations

Perception

The Target

• Novelty
• Motion
• Sounds
• Size
• Background
• P roximity
Learning
Intro to classical conditioning
 Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
 Pavlov, a Russian
physiologist, first described
classical conditioning in 1899
while conducting research
into the digestive system of
dogs.
 He was particularly

interested in the role of

salivary secretions in the
digestion of food and was
awarded the Nobel Prize for
Medicine or Physiology in
1904.
 Pavlov’s Research
 Pavlov used an apparatus
to measure the amount of
saliva produced when a
dog ate.
 The flow of saliva

occurred naturally
whenever food was
placed in the dog’s
mouth, as salivation is an
involuntary, reflex
response.
 Pavlov’s Method
 Dog was restrained in a harness
to avoid extraneous variables.
 Meat powder was placed
directly on the dog’s tongue or
in the bowl.
 A tube was surgically attached
to the dog’s cheek near one of
the salivary glands and a fistula
was made so that the saliva
drained straight out into a
measuring device.
 Further on, more sophisticated
measuring devices were used to
measure the speed of saliva
flow.
 What did Pavlov observe?
 Pavlov observed that the dogs
salivated not only at the sight
of the food, but also at the sight
or sound of the lab tech who
had been preparing the food.
 Pavlov was intrigued by these
unintentional observations &
he decided to conduct further
experiments.
 His subsequent experiments
provided clear evidence of a
form of learning based on the
repeated association of 2
different stimuli.
 A stimulus is any event that
elicits a response from an
organism.
 A response is a reaction by
an organism to a stimulus. In
Pavlov’s experiment, the
stimulus of food initially
produced the response of
salivation.
 Eventually the sight or
sound of the tech became the
stimulus.
 What is Classical Conditioning?
 Also known as respondent  In classical condition,
conditioning refers to a a response that is
form of learning that
automatically
occurs through the
repeated association of 2 produced by one
or more different stimuli. stimulus becomes
 Learning is only said to associated, or linked,
have occurred when a with another stimulus
particular stimulus that would not
consistently produces a
normally produce this
response that it did not
previously produce. response.
 Key Elements of Classical
Conditioning
There are 4 key elements that are used to describe the process of
classical conditioning.
 1. Unconditioned Stimulus
 The unconditioned
stimulus (UCS) is any
stimulus that
consistently produces
a particular, naturally
occurring, automatic
response.
 In Pavlov’s
experiment, the UCS
was the food (meat
powder).
 2. Unconditioned Response
 The unconditioned
response (UCR) is the
response that occurs
automatically when the
UCS is presented.
 A UCR is a reflexive,
involuntary response that
is predictably caused by a
UCS.
 In Pavlov’s experiments,
the UCR was the
salivation.
 3. Conditioned Stimulus
 The conditioned
stimulus (CS) is the
stimulus that is neutral at
the start of the
conditioning process and
does not normally
produce the UCR.
 Yet, through repeated
association with the
UCS, the CS triggers a
very similar response to
that caused by the UCS.
 Association refers to the
pairing or linking of 1
stimulus with another
stimulus.
 In Pavlov’s experiments, the
bell and subsequently other
stimuli were initially neutral,
but each became associated
with the meat powder.
 Once conditioning has
occurred and the originally
neutral stimulus produces
the response of salivating,
then it is called the CS.
 4. Conditioned Response
 The conditioned  Pavlov’s dogs displayed
response (CR) is the a CR (salivation) only
learned response that is when they began to
produced by the CS. salivate to a CS.
 The CR occurs after the  When the dog
CS has been associated responded to a CS, such
with the UCS. as the sound of a bell,
 The behaviour involved classical conditioning
in a CR is very similar to had taken place because
that of the UCR, but it is salivation would not be a
triggered by the CS usual response to the
alone. sound of a bell.
Another example…
OPERANT CONDITIONING
 What Is Operant Conditioning?

Operant conditioning is a method of learning that

occurs through rewards and punishments for
behavior.
Through operant conditioning, an association is
made between a behavior and a consequence for
that behavior.
 Operant conditioning was coined by
behaviorist Burrhus Frederic Skinner, who believed that
the organism, while going about it's everyday activities, is
in the process of “operating” on the environment.

  In the course of its activities, the organism encounters a

special kind of stimulus, called a reinforcing stimulus, or
simply a reinforcer.  This special stimulus has the effect of
increasing the behavior occurring just before the reinforcer.
 at
at first
first the
the mouse
mouse
The Skinner’s Box would
would have have just just
wondered
wondered around
around in in
search
search forfor food
food and
and
Click icon to add picture
Click icon to add picture
would
would have
have
accidentally
accidentally pressed
pressed
down
down on on thethe lever
lever
whilst
whilst exploring.
exploring. ItIt
would
would then then present
present
him
him with
with food,
food, and
and
the
the mouse
mouse would would
associate
associate the
the pressing
pressing
of
of the
the lever
lever with
with thethe
presentation
presentationof offood.
food.
  

Then it'll know whenever it's hungry to press that

lever because of that conditioning it went through.
 Skinner used the term operant to refer to any
"active behavior that operates upon the
environment to generate consequences"
Examples of Operant Conditioning

 children completing homework to earn a

reward from a parent or teacher
 employees finishing projects to receive praise
or promotions
Components of Operant Conditioning

 Reinforcement
 A kind of stimulus that aims to increase the strength
in behavior due to its consequence
 Punishment
 Any event that causes a decrease in the behavior
 Types of Reinforcement

 Positive Reinforcements
Are favorable events that are presented after the
behavior
(Reward Learning)

 Negative Reinforcement
A response or behavior is strengthened by stopping,
removing or avoiding a negative outcome or aversive
stimulus (escape-avoidance learning)
Examples of positive reinforcement:

After executing the learning plan, the principal said “Great

job”.

A student answered all the items correctly in the unit test.

The teacher said “ you are exempted in the periodic test”.
 Types of Positive Reinforcers

A. Natural reinforcers are those that occur directly as a result of the

behavior.
For example, a girl studies hard, pays attention in class
and does her homework. As a result, she gets excellent
grades.

B. Token reinforcers are points or tokens that are awarded

for performing certain actions. These tokens can then be
exchanged for something of value.
 C. Social reinforcers involve
expressing approval of a
behavior, such as a teacher,
parent or employer saying
or writing "Good job" or
"Excellent work."
 D. Tangible reinforcers
involve the presentation of
an actual, physical reward
such as candy, treats, toys,
money and other desired
objects.
 When is positive reinforcement most
effective?

 When it occurs immediately after the behavior

 When the reinforcement is presented
enthusiastically and frequently
 Negative Reinceforcement

 Examples:
 You leave your house early to avoid being late
 You clean up your mess in the kitchen to avoid in a
fight with your roommate
 When is negative reinforcement most
effective?

 It is most effective when reinforcers are

presented immediately following a behavior
 Schedule of Reinforcement
 A schedule of reinforcement is a rule stating when and
how often a behavior will be reinforced.

 This is applicable when you are purposely

trying to train and reinforce an action
 Types of reinforcement schedules
1. Continuous Reinforcement
the desired behavior is reinforced every single
time it occurs. Generally, this schedule is best used
during the initial stages of learning in order to
create a strong association between the behavior
and the response.
2. Partial Reinforcement
the response is reinforced only part of the time.
Schedules of partial reinforcement:
1. Fixed-ratio schedules

are those where a response is reinforced only

after a specified number of responses.
2. Variable- ratio schedules occur when a response is
reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses.
3. Fixed-interval schedules are those where the first
response is rewarded only after a specified amount of
time has elapsed.
4. Variable-interval schedules occur when a response
is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has
passed
 Punishment
Punishment is a kind of stimulus that aims to
decrease the strength in behaviour due to its
consequence.
 Kinds of punishment
 Positive punishment
Involves presenting an unfavorable outcome or
event following an undesirable behavior
(punishment by application)
Example:
wearing favorite dress to class but reprimanded
by the teacher for violating the school’s dress code
 Negative punishment
 It involves taking something good or desirable
away to reduce the occurrence of particular
behavior. (punishment by removal)
Example:
After getting low grades in her subjects because
of spending more time in texting rather than in
studying, her mother takes her cellphone away.
 Negative punishment is more effective if:

 It immediately follows a response.

 It is applied consistently.
 Strength of Behavior
Increases Decreases

POSITIVE
Stimulus is POSITIVE
REINFORCEMEN
PUNISHMENT
Consequences

presented T

Stimulus is NEGATIVE
NEGATIVE
removed REINFORCEMEN
PUNISHMENT
T
 ALBERT BANDURA :
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
 This theory emphasizes on:
 The importance of observing, modeling the
behaviours, attitudes and emotional reaction of
others.
 Explains students behaviour in the
interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and
environmental influences.
People learn through:
Observa
tion

Modeli
ng

Imitatio
n
 What is observation?

The
Theact
actof
ofwatching
watchingsomebody
somebody
or
orsomething
somethingcarefully
carefullyfor
for aa
period
periodofoftime,
time,especially
especiallyto
to
learn
learnsomething.
something.

Students
Studentslearn
learnthrough
through
vicarious
vicariousexperiences.
experiences.
 What is imitation?

The
Theact
actof
of Children are more
Children are more
copying
copying likely to imitate the
likely to imitate the
somebody
somebodyor or actions of others who
actions of others who
something.
something. seem competent,
seem competent,
powerful, prestigious
powerful, prestigious
and enthusiastic.
and enthusiastic.

Eg: Adults, older

Eg: Adults, older
siblings, celebrities.
siblings, celebrities.
 What is modeling?
A person or
thing that is Modeling
Modelingconsists
consistsof
of
considered an 44component
component
excellent process
process: :Attention,
Attention,
example of Retention,
Retention,
something. Reproduction,
Reproduction,
Motivation
Motivation

Modeling describes the

process of learning or
acquiring new
information, skills, or
behavior through
observation
 Attention : Retention :

Ensure the Process that

students’ pay involves in mental
attention. rehearsing.

Motivation : Production :

Practice the
behavior.
COGNITIVE THEORIES OF
LEARNING
Bruner’s and Ausubel approaches to
learning
Similarities and differences
 They both believe in four aspects:
 Structure of the material
 Active involvement of learners
 Linking of knowledge or
information
 Continuity of knowledge
The structure of the material

 For effective learning to occur, learners must learn the

structure of the material.

 The material [content/information] must be broken

down into various levels of generality and specificity,
from the most general to the most specific and vice-
versa.

 The parts of the materials must show interrelationships

of ideas, facts, concepts or principles.
On structure, Bruner emphasizes:

 Inductive learning (specific to general)

 Harmony of the structure with learners’ developmental

level and cognitive abilities.

 Developmental levels: enactive, iconic and symbolic.

 Enactive representation: communicating through actions or

practice.
 Iconic: understanding information through pictures,
figures, drawings.
 Symbolic: learning through language; concepts and
abstractions
 Learner’s involvement in the learning
process
 Effective learning must involve and stimulate
learner’s thinking and curiosity by relating,
interpreting, choosing and judging information.

Bruner; effective learning must involve learners in

discovery.

Discovery learning: an instructional approach by which

students learn from their active exploration of concepts
and principles which ultimately leads to construction of
knowledge (Bruner;1960) in The Process of Education.
Arrends (1998:353): it is a model of teaching that
emphasizes the importance of helping students
understand the structure of key ideas of a discipline,
the need for active involvement in the learning
process, and a belief that true learning comes through
personal discovery for which the goal of education is
to create possibilities for students’ invention and
discovery.

This enables children to learn through;

 Inquiry
 Inductive reasoning
 Intuition and insights
  Activity-based learning
 Problem based learning

In Ausubel model, active involvement of learners

should not be through discovery.
 Learners can not discover knowledge by
themselves.
 They need to receive it from the teacher or from a

more knowledgeable person.

 So, he focuses on direct instruction and giving

learners opportunities to give comments on the

material.
Learners should be involved in:
 asking and answering questions,
 giving examples,
 explaining meaning of a concept
 summarizing the lesson,
 demonstrating,
 interpreting an idea
 illustrating
 However, whatever students do in the lesson
must be in line with, and based on the teacher’s
organization and structure of the material.
 Linking previous and new knowledge

 Bruner believes that the learners’ existing knowledge is

important for understanding new information.

 He uses the concept of scaffolding to indicate the power

of linking information in the process of learning which
refers to a process by which a learner is helped by the teacher
or any other person to master a particular information or
problem beyond his or her developmental capacity. (Arrends,
R; 1998: 354).
 Scaffolding is defined by Malim, T & Birch
1998:469) as a framework provided by the adults or
more knowledgeable peers with in which the child may
develop greater understanding of a mental or physical
activity. In the process of scaffolding the student must
have existing knowledge to be expanded.

 The teacher is a stimulator of learner’s thinking

to enable them be more elaborate and reflective.

 For Ausubel the linkage between previous

knowledge and new knowledge is attained
through advance organizer.
 Glover & Corkill (1990:111): Advance organizer
is an appropriately relevant and inclusive
introductory material introduced in advance of
learning and presented at a higher level of
abstraction, generality and inclusiveness.

 Arrends (1998:238) points out that a good advance

organizer contains materials familiar to students and
are designed to relate to students’ prior knowledge.
Example of advance organizer:

 The teacher wants to teach History subject, the

topic of ‘Causes of Zanzibar revolution’.

Steps
 Review previous lesson

 Instructional objectives of the new lesson

 ask the students what they know about

revolution and any country they know which
made revolution.
 Then he may continue telling them that:
most countries in the world make revolution due to
various causes; internal conflicts, exploitation,
oppression, colonization, lack of civil rights or clash
of ideology between the mass and the existing
regime.

Tell them what to concentrate or focus on the

advance organizer (causes of revolution).
Advance organizer helps in :

 Laying out the structure of the material.

 Integrating and tying together the new
information with the existing knowledge.
 Stimulating, alerting and sharpening the mind
 Giving clue of the new topic and making the mind ready
to receive upcoming information.
  Promoting transfer of learning.
 Building and activating prior knowledge.
 The general concept laid out in the beginning must
be related to every specific detail.
 Linkages must also be between one step of the lesson
and another.

Continuity of knowledge
 Both psychologists believe that new knowledge

expands the mental schema of a learner.

 Continuity of knowledge is indicated by Bruner’s
concept of scaffolding and Ausubel’s concept of
meaningful learning.

 Meaningful learning is Acquisition of new meanings

which occurs when the material to be learned is related
to what students already know (Elliott et al; 2000:253).

 Snowman et al (2009:219) suggest that meaningful

occurs when a learner encounters clear, logically
organized material and continuously tries to relate the
new material to ideas and experiences stored in long
term memory.
 Existing knowledge is a building block of the new
knowledge.

 Mental schema adapts new knowledge in the

existing schema allowing for better learner’s
understanding of the material.

 It restructures, modifies and increases capability

of the schema to work more effectively.

 So, new learning can not be effectively grasped

unless it shows a link with the previous learning.
ORGANIZATIONAL
REWARD SYSTEM
 Organizational Reward System
 It is controversial feature of the organization
 Source can be either paycheck or little else
 Volunteers reward includes non monetary
compensation
 Important components
 Types of reward
 Reward norms
 Distribution criteria
 Types of Reward
 Financial Reward
 Types of reward
 Social reward
 Types of reward
 Psychic reward
 Types of reward
 Extrinsic reward
 Types of reward
 Intrinsic reward
 Organizational Reward Norms
 Profit maximization
 Organizational Reward Norms
 Equity
 Organizational Reward Norms
 Equality
 Organizational Reward Norms
 Need
 Distribution Criteria
 Performance result
 Distribution Criteria
 Performance action and behavior
 Distribution Criteria
 Non performance Consideration
 What is an attitude?
 Attitude can be defined as a persistent
psychological tendency to feel and behave in
a particular way.
 They are evaluative statements- either
favorable or unfavorable –concerning
objects, people, or events
 Nature of Attitudes
 Attitudes are understood as the beliefs, feelings and
action tendencies of an individual or group of
individuals towards objects, ideas and people.

 Attitudes can be described as mental states of

readiness, learned and organized through experience,
exerting a specific influence on a person’s response to
people, objects and situations with which it is related.
 Job related Attitudes
 Job satisfaction
 Job involvement
 Organisational commitment
Types
Types of
of Attitudes
Attitudes
 Components of Attitude

Affective Cognitive

Attitude

Behavioral
Tendency
 The Components of an Attitude
 Cognitive component- the opinion or belief
statement of an attitude.
 Affective/Evaluative/Emotional component-
one’s feeling or how you feel about a particular
thing.
 Behavioral component- an intention to behave
in certain way toward someone or something.
 Attitude Formation

Experience with
The object

Mass Classical
Communication Conditioning

Attitudes

Economic Operant
Status Conditioning

Family &
Neighborhood Social Learning
Peer Groups
 Functions of Attitudes

Ego
Adjustment
Defensive

Attitudes

Value
Knowledge
Expression
 Ways of Changing Attitudes
Changing attitudes of the self:

 Be aware of one’s own attitudes

 Think for self
 Realize that there are few, if any, benefits from harboring negative
attitudes
 Keep an open mind
 Get into continuous education & development programs
 Build a positive self-esteem
 Stay away from negative influences.
 Ways of Changing Attitudes
Changing attitudes of the Employees:

 Give feedback on a regular basis.

 Accentuate positive attitude.
 Be the role model
 Provide new information
 Use fear & coercion
 Use rewards
 Influence of friends/peers
 Applying co-opting approaches
Values
Types of Values –- Rokeach Value Survey