O R

S I
I HAV
T
N D E
A OB
IT Y T
L IP
N A SH
S O ON
R TI
PE ELA
R
 VARIABLES INFLUENCING
INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR

The Person
• Skills & abilities The Environment
• Personality • Organization
• Perceptions • Work group
• Attitudes • Job
• Values • Personal life
• Ethics

Behavior
B = f(P,E)
 PROPOSITIONS OF
INTERACTIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
Behavior—function of a continuous, multi-directional
interaction between person and situation
Person—active in process
 Changed by situations
 Changes situations
People vary in many characteristics
Two situational interpretations
 The objective situation
 Person’s subjective view of the situation
 PERSONALITY SHAPES BEHAVIOR
Why are some people quiet and passive?
Others are loud and aggressive?

What is personality??
ARE YOU A GOOD PERSONALITY?
Charming
Positive attitude
Smiling face
A finalist in Miss world contest

A psychologist view of personality- a

dynamic concept describing the growth
and development of a person’s whole
psychological system.
 Personality Defined…
“the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical
systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment”
- Gordon Allport
-the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with
others.
PERSONALITY TRAITS
Personality
Enduring characteristics Determinants
that describe an • Heredity
individual’s behavior.
• Environment
• Situation
 DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY

Heredity
Environment
(Culture, family,
situation, social
= factors)
f Self awareness
Learning
Personality
Traits
 
 
 
Heredity-
• Factors determined at conception; one’s biological, physiological, and
inherent psychological makeup.
• Physical structure, facial attractiveness, temperament, muscle
composition etc.
Environment –
• Culture, the norms among our family, friends, & social groups
• Other influences that we experience
Eg. Culture establishes the norms, attitudes, and values that are passed along
from one generation to the next.
North Indians vs south Indians
North Indians have experienced take-overs & wars for centuries, this made
them are aggressive, industrious/hard-working, competitive, ambitious, &
enterprising
South Indians have been able to preserve & devote themselves to classical art,
music, & literature.
 SITUATIONS AND PERSONALITY

An individual’s personality , although generally

stable and consistent, does change in different
situations.

Eg., Church, Picnic spot and Employment

interview.

Both are important as:

Heredity provides us with inborn traits and abilities,
But our full potential will be determined by how well we adjust
to the demands and requirements of the Environment.
 WHY DOES PERSONALITY MATTER?
 Every job role has some specific needs – e.g., open
mindedness for research, politeness for service staff
etc.
 If your consistent behavior or personality fits the
needs of the job, the person would enjoy doing the
job and job will be done well.
 Personality-job fit leads to excellence in job and job
satisfaction.
PERSONALITY TRAITS- IDENTIFY THE PRIMARY TRAITS
THAT GOVERN YOUR BEHAVIOUR
Shy
Aggressive
Timid/Scared
Submissive/Manageable
Lazy
Ambitious
loyal
HOW TO IDENTIFY AND CLASSIFY TRAITS?

Two approaches/ Personality tests -

1. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
2. The Big-Five Personality Model

Other Personality Test: Projection Test

 MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR (MBTI)
- Isabel Briggs Myers and her mother, Katharine C. Briggs described personality
types by constructing the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI).
- A 100-question personality test, Most widely used Personality Assessment
instrument in the World.
- Asks people how they usually act or feel in particular situations.
- On the basis of answers they are classified as-
1. Extroverted (E) vs Introverted (I)
2. Sensing (S) vs Intuitive (N)
3. Thinking (T) vs Feeling (F)
4. Judging (J) vs Perceiving (P)

Ex: Apple Computer, AT & T, Citigroup, GE, Many

Hospitals & Educational Institutes, Indian Defence
Service, U.S. Armed Forces
PERSONALITY TRAITS: MBTI
16 PERSONALITY TYPES
 THEORY OF MBTI
 Theory of MBTI is based on dichotomies and orientations/attitudes.
 Dichotomy – represents a framework related to decision making, e.g., rational v/s
irrational.
 Orientation/Attitude means preference to behaviour in a particular way, e.g.,
extroversion v/s introversion.

Dichotomy 1 Dichotomy 2 Orientation or

 It is rational.
 Called judging
function
(represented by J).
 Manifests in the
preferred behavior
of thinking and
feeling
(represented by T
and F).
 It is irrational. Attitudes
 Called perceiving  People are either
function inward-oriented (or
(represented by P). introverted
 Manifests in represented by I)
preferred behavior
of sensing and  Outward-oriented (or
intuition extroverted
(represented by S represented by E).
and N).
 LIMITATIONS
• It forces a person to be categorized as either one type or
another (i.e. extrovert or Introvert), there is no in-between,
though people can be both extrovert and introvert to some
degree.
• Its results tend to be unrelated to job-performance, it probably
should not be used as a selection test for choosing among job
candidates.
 MBTI: CONCLUSION
• For self-awareness
• For providing career guidance
• Results tend to be unrelated to job-performance
• May lack for strong-supporting evidence

INTJs are visionaries.

ESTJs are organizers.
ENTPs are conceptualizers.
 THE BIG FIVE PERSONALITY MODEL
• John Bearden tool.
• A personality assessment model that includes five basic dimensions.
• These five basic dimensions underline all others and encompass most of the
significant variation in human personality.
• Test scores of these traits do a very good job of predicting how people
behave in a variety of real-life situations.

• The Bog Five personality traits are:

• Extroversion
• Agreeableness
• Conscientiousness
• Emotional Stability
• Openness to experience
“ BIG FIVE” - JOHN BEARDEN
Extroversion
Sociable, expressive, and self-assured & Confident

Agreeableness
Good-natured, cooperative, and trusting.

Conscientiousness (measure of Reliability)

Responsible, dependable, determined, and organized.

Emotional Stability (Ability to handle stress)

Calm, self-confident, secure (positive) versus nervous,
depressed, and insecure (negative).

Openness to Experience
Imaginativeness, creative, curious, artistic, sensitivity, and
intellectualism. Versus conventional/conservative, & find comfort
in the familiar.
 CONCLUSION: RESEARCH FINDINGS…
Relationship between personality dimensions and
outcomes/behaviour
• Conscientiousness: Job knowledge, Job performance, OCB
• Agreeableness: Job performace
• Extroversion: Happiness, more likely to be absent from work,
engaged in risky behaviour
• Emotional Stability: Happiness, Life & Job satisfaction, low stress
level, take decision immediately
• Openness to experience: Training proficiency, Creative, Adaptable in
changing context, Politically Liberal
 MEASURING PERSONALITY: SOME WAYS

1. Self-report surveys-
 Impression-management practices,
 Accuracy

2. Observer-rating surveys-
 Better predictor, Can collect differentiated/unique information about
individuals
3. Projective-measures-
 Assessment is a challenge, not very effective
 Rorschach Inkblot Test: the individual is supposed to state what inkblots
seem to resemble
 Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): a series of pictures (drawing or
photos), the individual being tested writes a story about the picture.
PROJECTIVE TESTS: PERSONALITY TEST
 A picture or an ink blot of no particular pattern is shown.
 Individual is asked to describe it by stating what it is – one or two
sentences/a story with a time limit.
 The meaning of the sentence/the story interpreted by experts to
identify the personality.
 Complex method.
 Usually not used in the workplace.
 Popular in selection of officers in the defence services where expert
psychologists are employed for administering and interpreting data.
 Less susceptible to deception since the images/ink blots being
abstract.
 Captures the unconscious aspects better. Widely used for clinical
purposes.
 OTHER PERSONALITY TEST FOR MEASURING
PERSONALITY TRAITS
Cattell 16PF (Primary Factors)
• Based on 16 source traits, by Raymond B. Cattell, 1940
• 16 traits based on the research of a set of some 18,000 adjectives that describe
people.
• 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire, published in 1949, now in its fifth
edition.
• The 16 primary factors are each weighted and combined with other relevant
factors into global factors.
• 16 Primary factors are : Warmth, Reasoning, Emotional Stability,
Dominance, Liveliness, Rule-consciousness, Social boldness, Sensitivity,
Vigilance, Abstractedness (idea-oriented, imaginative), Privateness
(nondisclosing), Apprehension (worried), Openness to change, Self-reliance
(self-support/standing), Perfectionism (self-deciplined), Tension.
• 5 Global Factors are: Extroversion, Anxiety, Tough mindedness
(unempathetic), Independence, self-control.
OTHER PERSONALITY ATTRIBUTES INFLUENCING OB
• Core self-evaluation
• Self-esteem
• Locus of Control
• Machiavellianism
• Narcissism
• Propensity of Risk Taking
• Self-monitoring
• Type A & B Personalities
• Proactive Personality
CORE- SELF EVALUATION- THE SELF-PERSPECTIVE:
PERSONALITY TRAITS RELEVANT TO OB
- People differ in their degree to which they like –or dislike themselves
- Positive core self evaluation: they see themselves as capable and effective,
in control of their environment
- Negative core-self evaluations- people tend to dislike themselves, question
their capabilities, and view themselves as powerless over their environment

Two main elements

• Self-esteem
• Locus of control
• Internal,
• External
SELF-ESTEEM
- Individuals’ degree of liking or disliking themselves
and the degree to which they think they are worthy or
unworthy as a person.

- High-self esteem- confident

- Low self esteem- people seek approval of others,

require training
 SELF-ESTEEM AND SELF-MONITORING
Self-Esteem (SE)
Individuals’ degree of liking or disliking themselves.
Self-Monitoring
Refers to an individual’s ability to adjust his or her behavior to
external, situational factors.
Low-self-monitors tend to display their true dispositions and attitudes in
every situation, behavioral consistency between who they are and what
they do?
High-self- monitors are highly sensitive to external cues and can behave
differently in different situations. Pay close attention to the behaviors of
others, receive better performance ratings, emerge as good leaders, more
mobile in their careers, occupy central positions in organizations
 LOCUS OF CONTROL

The degree to which people believe they are masters

of their own destiny.

Internals
Individuals who believe that they control what happens to
them.

Externals
Individuals who believe that what happens to them is
controlled by outside forces such as luck or chance.
MACHIAVELLIANISM- N. MECHIAVELLI
Machiavellianism (Mach)- how to gain and use power
• Cunning, lacking a moral code and Opportunistic
Person
“If it works, use it”: High Mach Perspective
Degree to which an individual is practical, realistic,
maintains emotional distance, and believes that
ends can justify means.

Conditions: Favoring High Machs

• When they involve in direct interaction
• When the situation has minimal rules
and regulations
 HIGH & LOW MACH PERSONALITIES

High-Mach
- Manipulate more,
- win more,
- are persuaded less,
- persuade others

Should we conclude that high-

Machs make good employees??

Depends on:
A. Type of the job (like bargaining skills & rewards
for winning type jobs: High Machs will be more
productive)
B. Ethical implications
 NARCISSISM
The tendency to be arrogant, have a deep sense of self-importance,
require excessive admiration, and have a sense of entitlement.
 Self-admiration, Excessive interest in self
 Feel that they have no match though the reality may be different.
 They tend to ignore the advice of others, are usually arrogant.
 Do not listen much.
 Usually become poor leaders in the long run.

Studies indicate that narcissists are rated by their bosses as less

effective at their jobs, particularly when it comes to helping
other person.
 SELF-MONITORING, AND PROACTIVE
PERSONALITY
Other Personality Traits Relevant to OB
1. Self-Monitoring: measures an individual’s ability to adjust his or her
behavior to external, situational factors.
 More Adaptable, More sensitive & attentitive, performers etc.
2. Proactive Personality: people who identify opportunities, show
initiative, take action, and persevere until meaningful change occurs.
 Creates positive change in the environment, regardless or even in
spite of constraints or obstacles.
 Take action anticipating a situation.
 Have an insight into the future situation and do not need orders.
 By taking preventive action, they make their organizations strong
and sustainable.
 RISK-TAKING
High Risk-taking Managers
 Make quicker decisions
 Use less information to make decisions
 Operate in smaller and more entrepreneurial organizations
Low Risk-taking Managers
 Are slower to make decisions
 Require more information before making decisions
 Exist in larger organizations with stable environments

Risk Propensity
 Aligning managers’ risk-taking propensity to job
requirements should be beneficial to organizations.
 PERSONALITY TYPES

Proactive Personality
Type A and B Personalities
 TYPE A’S AND B’S PERSONLITY

Type A are
- Excessively competitive, always seem to be experiencing a sense of time
urgency, want to achieve more and more in less and less time, positively
associated with ambition.
- always moving, walking, and eating rapidly
- Feel impatient with the rate at which most events take place
- Strive to think or do two or more things at once
- Are passionate with numbers, measuring their success in terms of how
many or how much of everything they acquire.

- Type B’s-
- Never suffer from a sense of time urgency
- Can relax without guilt
- Feel no need to discuss their achievements
 TYPE ‘A’ AND TYPE ‘B’ PERSONALITY THEORY
Type ‘A’ Type ‘B’
 Started as a medical classification for  A term that emerged to contrast against
cardiac risk (High & Low). The Type ‘A’.
Terminology of ‘A’ and ‘B’.  Work steadily and systematically.
 Ambitious  Enjoy achievements.
 Organized
 Live at lower stress level and do not get
 Status conscious stressed when they do not achieve.
 Sensitive  Do not mind losing in a competition.
 Cares for others  Enjoy the game or back off.
 Truthful  Creative, enjoy exploring ideas and
 Impatient concepts, are reflective.
 Think about the outer and inner worlds.
 Ready to help others
 Takes stretch goals  Often show poor sense of time.
 Right-brained thinkers (used in popular
 Proactive
sense).
 High cardiac risk
 Low Cardiac risk
TYPE A & TYPE B PERSONALITY: SOME FACTS...
• There are no common personality types for a specific country.
• There are Type A personality people in each country, but there will
be more in capitalistic countries, where achievements and material
success are highly valued.
• Its estimated that 50% of American population is Type A.
• The United States and Canada both have a high emphasis on time
management and efficiency. Both have cultures that stress
accomplishments and acquisition of money and material goods.
• In cultures such as Sweden and France, where materialism is less
reserved i.e. Smaller proportion of Type A personalities.
 USE OF PERSONALITY TESTS
 Selection of people for a job.

 Development of people.

 Leadership development and coaching.

 In psychological research (e.g., relationship of introversion and child

background, openness and managerial effectiveness and so on).

 In counseling.

 In clinical diagnosis to find out if there are any psychological abnormality.

CAUTION:
 Should not take a personality test at face value.
 Use adequate corroborations because there is some danger of
misinterpreting a personality test.
 Unconscious distortion especially if the interpreter is not well-trained.
PERSON-JOB FIT VS. PERSON-ORGANIZATION FIT (1 OF 3)
Holland’s Typology of Personality and matching Occupations

Personality Types Personality Characteristics matching Occupations

Realistic: Prefers physical activities
that require skill, strength, and
coordination
Investigative: Prefers activities that
involve thinking, organizing, and
understanding
, stable, conforming, practical Mechanic, drill press operator,
assembly-line worker, farmer
Analytical, original, curious, Biologist, economist,
independent mathematician, news reporter

Social: Prefers activities that involve Sociable, friendly, cooperative, Social worker, teacher,
helping and developing others understanding counselor, clinical psychologist

Conventional: Prefers rule-regulated, Conforming, efficient, practical, Accountant, corporate manager,

orderly, and definite activities unimaginative, inflexible bank teller, file clerk

Enterprising: Prefers verbal activities Self-confident, ambitious, energetic, Lawyer, real estate agent, public
in which there are opportunities to dominant relations specialist, small
influence others and attain power business manager

Artistic: Prefers ambiguous and Imaginative, disorderly, idealistic, Painter, musician, writer, interior
unsystematic activities that allow emotional, impractical decorator
creative expression
 PERSON-JOB FIT VS. PERSON-ORGANIZATION
FIT : BIG FIVE MODEL
Person-Organization Fit
 People high on extraversion fit well with aggressive and team-
oriented cultures.
 People high on agreeableness match up better with a supportive
organizational climate than one focused on aggressiveness.
 People high on openness to experience fit better in
organizations that emphasize innovation rather than
standardization.
 PERSON-JOB FIT VS. PERSON-ORGANIZATION
FIT
Other Dimensions of Fit
– Although person-job fit and person-organization fit
are considered the most salient dimensions for
workplace outcomes, other ways of fit are worth
examining.
 Person-group fit
 For team setting
 Person-supervisor fit
 For job satisfaction and performance
 FREUD’S THREE LEVELS OF AWARENESS
 Conscious
 At any point of time, you may be having a train of thoughts.
 Your eyes may be feeling tired as you are looking at the computer, or listening to
what your teacher is saying.
 You are NOT usually aware of all these.
 Conscious is what one is aware of at a particular time.
 Preconscious awareness
 This is just below conscious awareness.
 Although strictly a part of the unconscious, it is usually classified separately
because you can retrieve it easily.
 Example: Things you had last Diwali or who came for your wedding.
 Unconscious
 A state from where it is difficult to retrieve information.
 Example: forgotten trauma of childhood, a hidden feeling of hostility to a parent.
FREUD’S ID, EGO AND SUPEREGO
 STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY:
FREUD’S THREE CONSTRUCT STRUCTURE
 IMPLICATIONS OF ID, EGO, AND SUPEREGO
AND THE STATES OF AWARENESS
• Id exists largely in the unconscious level – people
do irrational things.

• Ego exist in all three levels of awareness -

enforceable rules and laws are important to
control behavior.
 How do we get done what the ID wants?

• Superego exists in all three levels but to lesser

extent than ego – we cannot run this world only
though values, norms, and good behavior dictated
by it.
 PERSONALITY: IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS
• Big Five traits and Job analysis.
• Although the MBTI has faults, it can be used for training and
development.
• Evaluate jobs, work groups, and your organization to determine
the optimal personality fit.
• Consider situational factors when evaluating observable
personality traits,
• The more you consider people’s different cultures, the better you
will be able to determine their work behavior and create a
positive organizational climate that performs well.