Transformers

Syllabus
TRANSFORMER

Introduction – Single phase transformer construction

and principle of operation – EMF equation of
transformer-Transformer no–load phasor diagram ––
Transformer on–load phasor diagram – Equivalent
circuit of transformer – Regulation of transformer –
Transformer losses and efficiency-All day efficiency –
auto transformers.
 Transformer

Transformer is a static device which transfers electric power
from one circuit to another without changing its frequency

The principle of operation of a transformer depends upon
Faraday's Law of Electomagnetic Induction.

Actually mutual inductance between 2 or more windings is
responsible for transformation action in an electrical
transformer.

According to Faraday's Law, “Rate of change of flux
linkages with respect to time is directly proportional to the
induced EMF in a conductor or a coil”.

e = MdI/dt or N.dϕ / dt
Transformer
• Consists of two inductive coils which are
electrically seperate but magnetically
linked through a path of low reluctance.

• Primary coil and Secondary coil

Transformer -
• transfers electric power from one circuit to
another
• does so without change of frequency
• accomplishes this by electromagnetic
induction
• where the two electric circuits are linked
by mutual induction.
 Types of transformer
Based on terminal voltage,
•
Step-up transformer
•
Step down transformer
Based on supply voltage,
•
Single phase transformer
•
Three phase transformer
Based on construction,
•
Core type transformer
•
Shell type transformer
•
Spiral type or wound core type transformer (spirakore)
Based on type of cooling,
•
Oil-filled self cooled
•
Oil-filled water cooled
•
Air blast type
 Core Type Transformer

The windings surround a
considerable part of the core

It is a single magnetic circuit

Rectangular in shape having 2
limbs

The coils used are of cylindrical
type.

The coils are wound in helical
layers with different layers insulated
from each other by paper or micaor
cloth.

The core is made up of large
number of thin laminations.

LV winding is placed nearest to the
core with interleaved structure.
 Lecture - 2
• Review of Lecture 1
• Construction & Types of Transformer
• EMF equation of transformer
• Summary
Review - Transformers operate only on
AC
• Frequency of DC supply = 0Hz
• Inductive reactance XL = 2πfL
• The effective impedance of the winding -very low
= resistance of the copper used.
• Winding draws very high current from the DC
supply (I = V/R)
• Overheat & Burnout of windings
 Construction - Core

Core is either square or rectangular in size

The vertical portion in which the coils are wound are
called the limb and carries the windings

The horizontal portion is called the yoke which carries the
flux produced by one winding to another.
 Core

Core is made up of laminations to prevent eddy
current losses.

Laminations are made up of silicon steel of 0.3 to
0.5mm thick

Laminations are insulated from each other by
insulating materials like varnish.

Laminations are overlapped to avoid airgap at
the joints.

'L', 'E' , 'I' or 'T' shaped laminations are used.
 Laminations


In core type transformers, the steel core
laminations are in the shape of 'L' , and
these laminations are placed one above
the other alternatively.
 Laminations

In shell type transformers, the steel core
laminations are in the shape of 'E and I'
and placed similar to that of core type.
Types of laminations
 Windings

Transformer windings are made of solid copper
or aluminium strip conductors.

The coils used are wound on the limbs and are
insulated from each other.

It carries the current and produces the flux
necessary for the functioning of the transformer.
 Core type

• Windings are wrapped around two sides of a laminated square

core.
 Shell type transformer

The core surrounds a considerable
portion of the windings.

It is a double magnetic circuit

The core has 3 limbs.

The coils used are multilayered disc
type or sandwich coils.

The core is laminated.

All the joints at alternate layers are
staggered to avoid narrow airgaps at
the joints. Such joints are called as
overlapped or imbricated joints.

Windings are wrapped around the
center leg of a laminated core.
Shell type - sandwich coil structure

HV winding lies between

two LV windings

Controls leakage
 Sectional view of transformer

Windings are wrapped around • Windings are wrapped

the center leg of a laminated around two sides of a
core. laminated square core.
 Comparison between
Core & Shell Type
Description Core Type Shell Type
Construction Easy to assemble & Complex
Dismantle
Mechanical Strength Low High

Leakage reactance Higher Smaller

Cooling Better cooling of Better cooling of Core

Winding
Repair Easy Hard
Applications High Voltage & Low Low Voltages & Large
output Output
23
 Berry type transformer

It has distributed magnetic circuit

The core type is like the spikes of a
wheel.

The transformers are generally placed
in tightly fitted sheet metal tanks.

Tanks are made up of high quality
steel plate, formed and welded into a
rigid structure.

The tanks are filled with special
insulating oil.

All the joints are painted with light blue
chalk solution disclosing even a
minute leak.
 Ideal Transformers
• Zero leakage flux:
-Fluxes produced by the primary and secondary currents
are confined within the core
• The windings have no resistance:
- Induced voltages equal applied voltages
• The core has infinite permeability
- Reluctance of the core is zero
- Negligible current is required to establish
magnetic flux Primary Secondary
NP : NS
• Loss-less magnetic core
VP VS
- No hysteresis or eddy currents
Symbol for ideal transformer
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 Ideal transformer

V1 – supply voltage ; I1- noload input current ;

V2- output voltgae; I2- output current
Im- magnetising current;
E1-self induced emf ; E2- mutually induced emf
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 Transformer Equations
Using Faraday’s law, expressions for the primary and secondary
voltages is as follows.

d d
V2  N 2 . V1  N1 .
dt dt
Dividing the above equations we get,

V2 N2
 .
V1 N1
Assuming that there is no power loss,

V2 I 2  V1 I1.
V2 I1 N 2
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   K. K - transformation ratio
V1 I 2 N1
 EMF Equation of a transformer
Let N1= No. of primary turns

N2= No. of secondary turns

φm= Maximum flux density in transformer core in Weber

=BmA where Bm-> flux density in the transformer core

A -> cross sectional Area of the transformer

In an EMF equation, flux increases from its zero value to maximum

value Фm in one quarter of cycle ……(1)

Average rate of change of flux = Фm/(1/4f)=4f Фm wb/sec ……(2)

The average value of emf induced / turn = 4f Фm

EMF Equation of a transformer -contd
Form factor=R.M.S value/Average value = Vm
2 ……(3)
= 1.11 (for sine wave) 2Vm

R.M.S value of EMF/turn=1.11*4fФm volts ……(4)

Now,

R.M.S value of the induced EMF in the whole primary winding =

(induced EMF/turn)*No of primary turns.
E1 = 4.44fN1Фm ……(5)

llly,

E2 = 4.44fN2Фm ……(6)
 EMF equation of transformer - contd
If ip is sinusoidal, the flux produced also sinusoidal, i.e
 = m sin 2ft ……(7)

d  m sin 2ft 
therefore v1  N1
dt
v1 = N12fmcos 2ft = N12fmsin (2ft + /2) ……(8)

The peak value = Vpm = N12fm ……(9)

and v1 is leading the flux by /2.

V1m
The rms value V1   0.707  N1 2πf m  4.44 N1f m ……(10)
2
Summary

• Construction - Core & Shell type

• EMF equation of a transformer

Queries????????
Power Transmission (CONTENT BEYOND
SYLLABUS)

Transformers play a key role in the transmission of electric power.

Transformer with conservator and
breather(CONTENT BEYOND SYLLABUS)
 Parts of a transformer (CONTENT BEYOND SYLLABUS)

Conservator

Oil is stored in the conservator

It prevents the oil from moisture contact in air during the
expansion and contraction.

Breather

It is a device which contains silica gel crystals.

The gel absorbs the moisture in the atmosphere when the oil
expands and contracts.

Explosive Vent

It bursts when pressure inside the transformer becomes
excessive and protects the transformer from damage.

Transformer Tank filled with transformer Oil
Transformer-No load condition
 Phasor diagram: Transformer on
No-load

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Transformer – On load condition
 Transformer on load assuming no
voltage drop in the winding

Fig shows the Phasor diagram of a

transformer on load by assuming
1.No voltage drop in the winding
2.Equal no. of primary and secondary turns
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 Transformer on load

Fig. a: Ideal transformer on load

Fig. b: Main flux and leakage
flux in a transformer
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Phasor diagram of transformer with
UPF load

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Phasor diagram of transformer with
lagging p.f load

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Phasor diagram of transformer with
leading p.f load

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 Equivalent circuit of a
transformer
No load equivalent circuit:

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 Equivalent circuit parameters referred to
primary and secondary sides respectively

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 Contd.,
• The effect of circuit parameters shouldn’t be changed while
transferring the parameters from one side to another side
• It can be proved that a resistance of R2 in sec. is equivalent
to R2/k2 will be denoted as R2’(ie. Equivalent sec. resistance
w.r.t primary) which would have caused the same loss as
R2 in secondary,

I 12 R2'  I 22 R2
2
 I2 
R  
'
2
 R2
 I1 
R2
 2
k
Transferring secondary parameters
to primary side

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 Equivalent circuit referred to
secondary side
•Transferring primary side parameters to secondary side

Similarly exciting circuit parameters are also transferred to

secondary as Ro’ and Xo’

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 equivalent circuit w.r.t primary

where

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 Approximate equivalent circuit
• Since the noload current is 1% of the full load
current, the nolad circuit can be neglected

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 Transformer Tests
•The performance of a transformer can be calculated on the basis of
equivalent circuit
•The four main parameters of equivalent circuit are:
- R01 as referred to primary (or secondary R02)
- the equivalent leakage reactance X01 as referred to primary
(or secondary X02)
- Magnetising susceptance B0 ( or reactance X0)
- core loss conductance G0 (or resistance R0)
•The above constants can be easily determined by two tests
- Oper circuit test (O.C test / No load test)
- Short circuit test (S.C test/Impedance test)
•These tests are economical and convenient
- these tests furnish the result without actually loading the
transformer

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 Open-circuit Test
In Open Circuit Test the transformer’s secondary winding is open-circuited, and
its primary winding is connected to a full-rated line voltage.

V0
Core loss  Woc  V0 I 0 cos 0 R0 
Iw
Woc
cos 0  V0
V0 I 0 X0 
I
I c or I w  I 0 cos 0
I
G0  w
• Usually conducted on I m or I   I 0 sin 0  I 02 -I w2 V0
H.V side I0 I
I 0  V0 Y0 ;  Yo  B0 
• To find V0 V0
(i) No load loss or core Woc
Woc  V02 G 0 ;  Exciting conductance G 0 
loss V02
(ii) No load current Io & Exciting susceptance B0  Y02  G02
which is helpful in
finding Go(or Ro ) and Bo
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(or Xo )
 Short-circuit Test
In Short Circuit Test the secondary terminals are short circuited, and the
primary terminals are connected to a fairly low-voltage source
The input voltage is adjusted until the current in the short circuited
windings is equal to its rated value. The input voltage, current and power is
measured.

• Usually conducted on L.V side

• To find
(i) Full load copper loss – to pre determine the
efficiency
(ii) Z01 or Z02; X01 or X02; R01 or R02 - to predetermine the
voltage regulation
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 Contd…

Full load cu loss  Wsc  I sc2 R01

Wsc
R 01 
I sc2
Vsc
Z 01 
I sc
 X 01  Z 012  R012

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 Transformer Voltage Regulation and
Efficiency
The output voltage of a transformer varies with the load even if the input
voltage remains constant. This is because a real transformer has series
impedance within it. Full load Voltage Regulation is a quantity that compares
the output voltage at no load with the output voltage at full load, defined by
this equation:
Vs
At noload k 
Vp
V S ,nlVS , fl VP / k   VS , fl
Regulation up   100% Regulation up  x 100%
VS , fl VS , fl

V S ,nlVS , fl VP / k   VS , fl
Regulation down   100% Regulation down  x 100%
VS ,nl
VS ,nl

Ideal transformer, VR = 0%.

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Voltage regulation of Transformer
no - load voltage  full - load voltage
Voltage regulation 
no - load voltage
Vs N s
recall 
Vp N p
N 
Secondary voltage on no-load V2  V1  2 
 N1 
V2 is a secondary terminal voltage on full load

Substitute we have  N2 
V1    V2
 N1 
Voltage regulation 
 N2 
V1  
 N1 
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 Transformer Phasor Diagram
To determine the voltage regulation of a transformer, it is necessary
understand the voltage drops within it.

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56
 Transformer Phasor Diagram
Ignoring the excitation of the branch (since the current flow through the
branch is considered to be small), more consideration is given to the series
impedances (Req +jXeq).
Voltage Regulation depends on magnitude of the series impedance and the
phase angle of the current flowing through the transformer.
Phasor diagrams will determine the effects of these factors on the voltage
regulation. A phasor diagram consist of current and voltage vectors.

Assume that the reference phasor is the secondary voltage, VS. Therefore
the reference phasor will have 0 degrees in terms of angle.
Based upon the equivalent circuit, apply Kirchoff Voltage Law,
VP
 VS  Req I S  jX eq I S
k
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57
 Transformer Phasor Diagram
For lagging loads, VP / a > VS so the voltage regulation with lagging loads is > 0.

When the power factor is unity, VS is lower than VP so VR > 0.

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58
 Transformer Phasor Diagram
For lagging loads, the vertical components of Req and Xeq will partially
cancel each other. Due to that, the angle of VP/a will be very small, hence
we can assume that VP/k is horizontal. Therefore the approximation will
be as follows:

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 Transformer Phasor Diagram
With a leading power factor, VS is higher than the referred VP so VR < 0

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60
 Voltage regulation
Lagging P.F. VP/ k > VS V.R. > 0

Unity P.F. VP / k > VS V.R. >0

(smaller)

Leading P.F. VS > VP/ k V.R. < 0

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Voltage regulation for Lagging Power Factor
Voltage Regulation for Leading Power
Factor
 Formula: voltage regulation
In terms of secondary values
0 V2  V2 I 2 R02 cos  2  I 2 X 02 sin  2
% regulation  
0 V2 0 V2

where ' ' for lagging and '-' for leading

In terms of primary values
V1  V I 1 R01 cos 1  I 1 X 01 sin 1
'
% regulation   2

V1 V1
where ' ' for lagging and '-' for leading

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 Transformer Efficiency
Transformer efficiency is defined as (applies to motors, generators and
transformers):
Pout
   100%
Pin
Pout
  100%
Pout  Ploss
Types of losses incurred in a transformer:
Copper I2R losses
Hysteresis losses
Eddy current losses
Therefore, for a transformer, efficiency may be calculated using the following:
VS I S cos 
 x100%
PCu  Pcore  VS I S cos 
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 Losses in a transformer
Core or Iron loss:

Copper loss:

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 Condition for maximum
efficiency

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 Contd.,

The load at which the two losses are equal =

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 AUTO TRANSFORMER


At some occasions it is desirable to change voltage
level only by a small amount

i.e. may need to increase voltage from 110 to 120 V
or from 13.2 to 13.8 kV

This may be due to small increase in voltage drop
that occur in a power system with long lines

In such cases it is very expensive to hire a two full
winding transformer, however a special transformer
called: ”auto-transformer” can be used
 AUTO TRANSFORMER

• Diagram of a step-up auto-transformer shown in

figure below:
• C: common, SE: series
 AUTO TRANSFORMER

• A step-down auto-transformer :

• IH=ISE
• IL=ISE+IC
 AUTO TRANSFORMER
• In step-up autotransformer:

VC / VSE = NC / NSE (1)

NC IC = NSE ISE (2)

voltages in coils are related to terminal voltages as
follows:

VL=VC (3)

VH=VC+VSE (4)

current in coils are related to terminal currents:

IL=IC+ISE (5)

IH=ISE (6)
 AUTO TRANSFORMER
• Voltage & Current Relations in Autotransformer
• VH=VC+VSE
• since VC/VSE=NC/NSE  VH=VC+ NSE/NC . VC
• Noting that: VL=VC 
VH=VL+ NSE/NC . VL= (NSE+NC)/NC . VL
• VL / VH = NC / (NSE+NC) (7)
• Current relations:
• IL=IC+ISE employing Eq.(2)  IC=(NSE / NC)ISE
• IL= (NSE / NC)ISE + ISE, since ISE=IH 
IL= (NSE / NC)IH +IH = (NSE + NC)/NC . IH 
IL / IH = (NSE + NC)/NC (8)
 AUTO TRANSFORMER

Apparent Power Rating Advantage of Autotransformer

Note : not all power transferring from primary to
secondary in autotransformer pass through windings

Therefore if a conventional transformer be reconnected as
an autotransformer, it can handle much more power than
its original rating

The input apparent power to the step-up autotransformer
is : Sin=VLIL

And the output apparent power is:
Sout=VH IH
 AUTO TRANSFORMER

And :
Sin=Sout=SIO

Apparent power of transformer windings:
SW= VCIC=VSE ISE

This apparent power can be reformulated:
SW= VCIC=VL(IL-IH) =VLIL-VLIH

employing Eq.(8)  SW= VLIL-VLIL NC/(NSE+NC)
=VLIL [(NSE+NC)-NC] /(NSE+NC)=SIO NSE /(NSE+NC)
SIO / SW = (NSE+NC) / NSE (9)
 AUTO TRANSFORMER


Internal Impedance of an Autotransformer

Another disadvantage: effective per unit
impedance of an autotransformer w.r.t. the related
conventional transformer is the reciprocal of power
advantage

This is a disadvantage where the series impedance
is required to limit current flows during power
system faults (S.C.)
Example of Variable Auto-Transformer
 All day efficiency

All day efficiency is defined as the ratio of total

energy output of transformer to thetotal energy
input in 24 hours.

out put in watts

ordinary commercial efficiency 
input in watts

output in kWh
 all day  ( for 24 hours)
Input in kWh
•All day efficiency is always less than the commercial efficiency
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Transformer Voltage Regulation and
Efficiency - Tutorial
(a) Find the equivalent circuit referred to H.V. side
(b) Find the equivalent circuit referred to L. V. side
(c) Calculate the full-load voltage regulation at 0.8 lagging PF, 1.0 PF,
and at 0.8 leading PF
(d) Find the efficiency at full load with PF 0.8 lagging
SOLUTION:
Open circuit impedance angle is:
POC 50
 OC  cos 1
 cos 1
 84
VOC I OC 2300  0.21
Excitation admittance is:
I OC 0.21
YE    84    84  9.13  10 5   84
VOC 2300
 0.0000095  j 0.0000908
Transformer Voltage Regulation and
Efficiency
• Impedance of excitation branch referred to primary:
1
RC   105k
0.0000095
1
XM   11k
0.0000908
• Short Circuit Impedance angle:
PSC 160
 SC  cos 1  cos 1  55.4
VSC I SC 47  6

• Equivalent series Impedance:

VSC 47
Z SE   SC  55.4   7.83355.4 
I SC 6
Req=4.45 Ω, Xeq=6.45 Ω
4.45  j 6.45
Transformer Voltage Regulation and
Efficiency
• The equivalent circuits shown below:

Transformer Voltage Regulation and
Efficiency
• (b) To find eq. cct. Referred to L.V. side,
impedances divided by a²=NP/NS=10
RC=1050 Ω , XM=110 Ω
Req=0.0445 Ω , Xeq=0.0645 Ω
• (c) full load current on secondary side:
IS,rated=Srated/ VS,rated=15000/230 =65.2 A
To determine V.R., VP/ a is needed
VP/a = VS + Req IS + j Xeq IS , and:
IS=65.2/_-36.9◦ A , at PF=0.8 lagging
 Transformer Voltage Regulation and
Efficiency
• Therefore:
VP / a = 2300  (0.0445)(65.2  36.9 )  j 0.0645  65.2  36.9
 2300  2.9  36.9  4.2153.1
 230  2.32  j1.74  2.52  j 3.36
 234.84  j1.62  234.850.4V

V.R.=(234.85-230)/230 x 100 %=2.1 % for 0.8 lagging

• At PF=0.8 leading  IS=65.2/_36.9◦ A
VP / a = 2300 
 ( 0 .0445)( 65. 236. 9 
)  j 0. 0645  65. 236 .9 

 2300  2.936.9  4.21126.9

 230  2.32  j1.74  2.52  j 3.36
 229.8  j 5.10  229.851.27V
 Transformer Voltage Regulation and
Efficiency
• V.R. = (229.85-230)/230 x 100%= -0.062%
• At PF=1.0 , IS= 65.2 /_0◦ A
• VP/a= 2300  (0.0445)(65.20 )  j (0.0645)(65.20 )
 2300  2.90  4.2190  230  2.9  j 4.21
 232.9  j 4.21  232.941.04 V
• V.R. = (232.94-230)/230 x 100% = 1.28 % for PF=1
Transformer Voltage Regulation and
Efficiency
• Example: Phasor Diagrams …
Transformer Voltage Regulation and
Efficiency
• (d) to plot V.R. as a function of load is by repeating the
calculations of part “c” for many different loads using
MATLAB
Transformer Voltage Regulation and Efficiency

• (e) Efficiency of Transformer:

- Copper losses:
PCu=(IS)²Req =(65.2)² (0.0445)=189 W
- Core losses:
PCore= (VP/a)² / RC= (234.85)² / 1050=52.5 W
output power:
Pout=VSIS cosθ=230x65.2xcos36.9◦=12000 W
η= VSIS cosθ / [PCu+PCore+VSIS cosθ] x 100%=
12000/ [189+52.5+12000] = 98.03 %