ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Firstly I would like to express

my special thanks and
gratitude to the Almighty God
for enabling me to complete
this project at this grimmest
hour of pandemic phase. I
would like to convey my
heartfelt thanks to my subject
teacher for the constant
support. I would also like to
extend my respect to our
respected Principal Sir for his
support and encouragement.
Finally I would like to say
thanks to all my subject
teachers and my dearest
classmates for their efforts
and supports.
NARAYANA SCHOOL

DURGAPUR
SESSION 2021-2022

• Name – Dhruba haldar

• Class - XI

• Subject - Chemistry

• Topic – foaming capacity of

soaps
DECLARATION

I, Dhruba haldar Roll No.

_________ hereby declare that
the project titled “foaming
capacity of soaps”, is submitted
by me to the Department of
Chemistry, Narayana School,
Newtown, for the fulfilment of
A.I.S.S.C.E. 2021 – 2022
practical examination, conducted
by CBSE, New Delhi.
 certificate

This is to certify that Dhruba haldar,

Roll No. ___________,
has successfully completed the project
titled “foaming capacity of soaps” as
per
regulations laid down by A.I.S.S.C.E.
for the purpose of Practical
Examination, and submitted to
the Department of Chemistry,
Narayana School, New town. It is an
original work done by the
candidate under the supervision and
able guidance of the concerned
supervisors.

SIGNATURE OF PRINCIPAL:
Signature of Project Supervisors:
Signature of External Examiner: 
 INTRODUCTION

Soap is an anionic surfactant used in conjunction

with water for washing and cleaning, which historically
comes either in solid bars or in the form of a
viscous liquid. Soap consists of sodium or potassium
salts of fatty acids and is obtained by reacting common
oils or fats with a strong alkaline in a process known
as saponification. The fats are hydrolyzed by the base,
yielding alkali salts of fatty acids (crude soap)
and glycerol. The general formula of soap is Fatty end
water soluble end CH3-(CH2) n-COONa Soaps are
useful for cleaning because soap molecules have both
a hydrophilic end, which dissolves in water, as well as
a hydrophobic end, which is able to dissolve non polar
grease molecules. Applied to a soiled surface, soapy
water effectively holds particles in colloidal suspension
so it can be rinsed off with clean water. The hydrophobic
portion (made up of a long hydrocarbon chain) dissolves
dirt and oils, while the ionic end dissolves in water. The
resultant forms a round structure called micelle.
Therefore, it allows water to remove normally-insoluble
matter by emulsification.
 COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION OF
SOAP

The most popular soap making process today

is the cold process method, where fats such
as olive oil react with strong alkaline solution,
while some soapers use the historical hot
process. Handmade soap differs from
industrial soap in that, usually, an excess of fat
is sometimes used to consume the alkali
(super fatting), and in that the glycerin is not
removed, leaving a naturally moisturizing
soap and not pure detergent. Often, emollients
such as jojoba oil or Shea butter are added 'at
trace' (the point at which the saponification
process is sufficiently advanced that the soap
has begun to thicken), after most of the oils
have saponified, so that they remain unreacted
in the finished soap.
 FAT IN
SOAP

Soap is derived from either vegetable or

animal fats. Sodium Tallowate, a common
ingredient in much soap, is derived
from rendered beef fat. Soap can also be
made of vegetable oils, such as palm oil, and
the product is typically softer. An array
of saponifiable oils and fats are used in the
process such as olive, coconut, palm, cocoa
butter to provide different qualities. For
example, olive oil provides mildness in soap;
coconut oil provides lots of lather; while
coconut and palm oils provide hardness.
Sometimes castor oil can also be used as an
ebullient. Smaller amounts of unsaponifable
oils and fats that do not yield soap are
sometimes added for further benefits.
 PREPARATION OF
SOAP

In cold-process and hot-process soap

making, heat may be required
for saponification. Cold-process soap
making takes place at a sufficient
temperature to ensure the liquification of
the fat being used. Unlike cold-processed
soap, hot-processed soap can be used right
away because the alkali and fat saponify
more quickly at the higher temperatures
used in hot-process soap making. Hot-
process soap making was used when the
purity of alkali was unreliable. Cold-
process soap making requires exact
measurements of alkali and fat amounts and
computing their ratio, using saponification
charts to ensure that the finished product is
mild and skin-friendly.
 PROCESS
Hot process In the hot-process method, alkali and fat
are boiled together at 80–100 °C until saponification
occurs, which the soap maker can determine by taste or by
eye. After saponification has occurred, the soap is
sometimes precipitated from the solution by adding salt,
and the excess liquid drained off. The hot, soft soap is
then spooned into a mold.
Cold process A cold-process soap maker
first looks up the saponification value of the fats being
used on a saponification chart, which is then used to
calculate the appropriate amount of alkali. Excess
unreacted alkali in the soap will result in a very high pH
and can burn or irritate skin. Not enough alkali and the
soap are greasy. The alkali is dissolved in water. Then oils
are heated, or melted if they are solid at room
temperature. Once both substances have cooled to
approximately 100-110°F (37-43°C), and are no more
than 10°F (~5.5°C) apart, they may be combined. This
alkali-fat mixture is stirred until "trace". There are varying
levels of trace. After much stirring, the mixture turns to
the consistency of a thin pudding. "Trace" corresponds
roughly to viscosity. Essential and fragrance oils are
added at light trace.
 INTRODUCTION TO THE
EXPERIMENT

Soap samples of various brands are taken

and their foaming capacity is noticed.
Various soap samples are taken separately
and their foaming capacity is observed.
The soap with the maximum
foaming capacity is thus,
said to be having the best cleaning
capacity. The test requires to be done with
distilled water as well as with tap water.
The test of soap on distilled water gives
the actual strength of the soaps cleaning
capacity.
The second test with tap water tests
the effect of Ca2+ and Mg2+ salts on
their foaming capacities.
Objective: To compare the
foaming capacity of various soaps.
 THEORY
The foaming capacity of soap depends upon
the nature of the soap and its concentration.
This may be compared by shaking equal
volumes of solutions of different samples
having the same concentration with same
force for the same amount of time. The
solutions are then allowed to stand when the
foam produced during shaking disappears
gradually. The time taken for the foam to
disappear in each sample is determined. The
longer the time taken for the disappearance
of the foam for the given sample of soap,
greater is its foaming capacity or cleansing
action.
Requirements: Five 100ml
conical flasks, five test tubes,
100ml measuring cylinder, test
tube stand, weighing machine,
stop watch. Chemical
Requirements: Five different
soap samples, distilled water, tap
water.
 Procedure
1. Take five 100ml conical
flasks and number them 1,      2,3,4,5. Put 16ml of
water in each flask and add 8 Gms of soap.
2. Warm the contents to get a solution.
3. Take five test tubes; add 1ml of
soap solution to 3ml of water. Repeat the process
for each soap solution in different test tubes.
4. Close the mouth of the test tube and
shake vigorously for a minute. Do the same for all
test tubes and with equal force.
5. Start the timer immediately and notice the rate
of disappearance of 2mm of froth.
 OBSERVATIONS

S no. Test Tube no.  Vol. of Vol. of disappeara

soap water nce of
solution. added 2mm
Time
taken for

1.    Dove 8ml 16ml 11’42”

2.    Lux 8ml 16ml 3’28”

3.    Tetmosol 8ml 16ml 5’10”

4.    Santoor 8ml 16ml 15’32”

5.    Cinthol 8ml 16ml 9’40”

 RESULT
The cleansing capacity of the soaps taken is in
the order:
Santoor > Dove > Cinthol > Tetmosol > Lux
From this experiment, we can infer that Santoor
has the highest foaming capacity, in other words,
highest cleaning capacity. Lux, on the other
hand is found to have taken the least amount of
time for the disappearance of foam produced and
thus is said to be having the least foaming
capacity and cleansing capacity.
Test for hardness in water Test for Ca2+ and
Mg2+ salts in the water supplied Test
for Ca2+ in water H2O +NH4Cl + NH4OH +
(NH4)2CO3 No precipitate Test for Mg2+ in
water H2O +NH4Cl +
NH4OH + (NH4)3PO4 No precipitate
The tests show negative
results for the presence of the salts causing
hardness in water.
The water used does not contain salts of
Ca2+ and Mg2+.
The tap water provided is soft and thus, the
experimental results and values hold good for
distilled water and tap water
 BIBLOGRAPHY
S.NO TOPIC Sources

1. Acknowledgment ____

2. Front page ____

3. Declaration ____

4. Certificate ____

5. Introduction https://www.icbse

6. process https://www.icbse

7. Theory https://www.icbse

8. Biblography ____