TIK ;

Diharapkan mahasiswa dapat memahami dan mampu

hubungan antara crystal logam dengan sifat mekanis.

METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001

 PENILAIAN
• UAS
• UTS
• TUGAS
• QUIZ
• ABSENSI
 BONDING
Atomic Bonding
Matter, as we know it, exists in three common state are solid,
liquid, and gas. The atomic or molecular interactions that occur
within a substance determine its state.

Solid matter is held together by forces originating between

neighboring atoms or molecules. These force arise because of
differences in the electron clouds of atoms.

METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001

 The types of bonds in a material are determined by the manner
in which force hold matter together. Several type and their
caracteristics are listed below :
1. Ionic bond : in this type of bond, one or more electron
are wholly transferred from an atom of element to the
atom of the other, and the element are held together by
the force ot attraction due the opposite polarity of the
charge.
2. Covalent bond : A bond formed by shared electron.
Electron are shared when an atom needs electron to
complete its outer shell.

METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001

 3. Metallic bond : The atoms do not share or exchange electrons
to bond together, instead, many electron (roughly one for each
atom) are more or less free to move throughout the metal, so that
each electron can interac with many of the fixed atoms

4. Molecular bond : When the electron of neutral atoms spend

more time in one region of their orbit, a temporary weak charge
will exist.
5. Hydrogen bond : This bond is similar to the molecular and
occurs due to the ease with hydrogen atoms are willing to give
up an electron to atoms of oxygen, fluorine or nitrogen

METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001

METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001
 Microstructure
Solids have greater interatomic attractions than liquids and
gases. The properties of materials depend on their interatomic
bonds.All solids may be classified as either amorphous or
crystaline

Amorphous materials have no regular arrangement of their

molecules, materials like glass and parrafin are considered
amorphous.

Crystaline structure, the atoms are arranged in a three-

dimensional array called a lattice. The lattice has a regular repeating
configuration in all directions.

METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001

 Metallographic Specimen Preparation
Variations in the procedures may also be required depending
on the nature of the metal to be examined, becouse metals vary
widely in hardness and texture.

The normal procedure is to mount the specimen in a small

plastic disc (about 1in or 25mm) in diameter and ½ in or12.5mm
thick) with the surface the specimen to be polished exposed on
one side of the disc.

Steps in specimen preparation involve four basic types of

operations :
1. Fine grinding
2. Rough polishing
3. Final polisghing
4. Etching
METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001
 1. Specimen surface in ground using by silicon carbide powder
bonded onto specially prepared papers, three grades of
abrasive are used ; 320, 400 and 600 grit.
2. This is probably the critical stage. The abrasive extensively
used for the rough polishing operation is powdered diamond
dust, with a particle size of about 6 microns.
3. The polishing coumpound usually used is alumina (Al2O3)
powder, with particle size of 0.05 micron.
4. The granular structur in a metallographic speciem usually
cannot be seen under microscope after a final polishing. In
most case this involves immersing the polished surface in a
weak acidic or alkaline etching solution. For steel  nital and
consists of a 2% solution nitric acid in alcohol.

METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001

 Common Crytal Structure
In metals, and in many other solids, the atoms are arranged in
regular arrays called crystals.
A crystal structure consists of atoms arranged in a pattern that
repeats periodically in a three dimensional geometric lattic.

Body-Centered Cubic
In a body centered cubic (BCC),
arrangement of atos, the untill cell
consists of eight atoms at the corners
of cube and one atom at the body
center of the cube

METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001

 Metals such as α-iron (Fe), chromium (Cr), vanadium (V),
molybdenum (Mo), and tungsten (W)…possess BCC structure.
These BCC metals have two properties in common :
1. High strength
2. Low ductiliyt (which permits permanent deformation)

Face-centered Cubic
In a face-centered cubic (FCC)
arrangement of atoms, the unit
cell consist of eight atoms at the
corners of a cube and one atom at
the center of each of the faces of
the cube.

METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001

 FCC metals such as γ-iron (Fe) (austenite), aluminium (Al),
copper (Cu), lead (Pb), silver (Ag), gold (Au), nickel (Ni),
platinum (Pt), and thorium (Th)
All of metas have mechanical properties :
1. Lower strength
2. Higher ductility than BCC metals

hexagonal close-packed (HCP)

In a hexagonal close-packed (HCP)
arrangement of atoms, the unit cell consists
of three layers ot atoms. The top and bottom
layer contain six atoms at the corners of a
hexagon and one atom at the center of each
hexagon. The middle layer contains three
atoms nestled between the atoms of the top
and bottom layer.
METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001
 ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR (APF)

• Fill a box with hard spheres

– Packing factor = total volume of spheres in
box / volume of box
– Question: what is the maximum packing factor
you can expect?
• In crystalline materials:
– Atomic packing factor = total volume of atoms
in unit cell / volume of unit cell
– (as unit cell repeats in space)
METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001
METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001
 ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR
Volume of atoms in unit cell*
APF =
Volume of unit cell
*assume hard spheres

volume
a atoms
4 atom
R=0.5a unit cell 1 (0.5a) 3
3
APF =
close-packed directions
a3 volume
contains 8 x 1/8 =
1 atom/unit cell unit cell
Adapted from Fig. 3.19,
Callister 6e.

Lattice constant
• APF for a simple cubic structure = 0.52
METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001
 BODY CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE (BCC)

• Coordination # = 8

(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)

Adapted from Fig. 3.2,

Callister 6e.
• Close packed directions are cube diagonals.
--Note: All atoms are identical; the center atom is shaded
differently only for ease of viewing.

METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001

 ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR: BCC
Close-packed directions:
length = 4R
= 3a
Unit cell c ontains:
1 + 8 x 1/8
= 2 atoms/unit cell
R
Adapted from a
Fig. 3.2,
Callister 6e. atoms volume
4
unit cell 2 ( 3a/4 ) 3
3 atom
APF =
volume
a3
unit cell
• APF for a body-centered cubic structure = 3/8 = 0.68
METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001
 FACE CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE
(FCC)
• Coordination # = 12

Adapted from Fig. 3.1(a),

(Courtesy P.M. Anderson) Callister 6e.

• Close packed directions are face diagonals.

--Note: All atoms are identical; the face-centered atoms are shaded
differently only for ease of viewing.
METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001
 ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR: FCC
Close-packed directions:
length = 4R
= 2a
Unit cell c ontains:
6 x 1/2 + 8 x 1/8
= 4 atoms/unit cell
a
Adapted from atoms volume
4
( 2a/4 ) 3
Fig. 3.1(a),
Callister 6e. unit cell 4 atom
3
APF =
volume
a3
unit cell
• APF for a body-centered cubic structure = /(32) = 0.74
(best possible packing of identical spheres)
METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001
 FCC STACKING SEQUENCE
A
• FCC Unit Cell B
C

• ABCABC... Stacking Sequence

• 2D Projection
A
B B
C
A
A sites B B B
C C
B sites B B
C sites

METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001

 HEXAGONAL CLOSE-PACKED STRUCTURE
(HCP)

Ideally, c/a = 1.633 for close packing

However, in most metals, c/a ratio deviates from this value
METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001
 HEXAGONAL CLOSE-PACKED STRUCTURE
(HCP)
• ABAB... Stacking Sequence
• 3D Projection • 2D Projection

A sites Top layer

B sites Middle layer

A sites Bottom layer

Adapted from Fig. 3.3,
Callister 6e.

• Coordination # = 12
• APF = 0.74, for ideal c/a ratio of 1.633

METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001

 Close packed crystals

A plane
B plane

C plane

A plane
…ABCABCABC… packing …ABABAB… packing
[Face Centered Cubic (FCC)] [Hexagonal Close Packing (HCP)]
 COMPARISON OF CRYSTAL
STRUCTURES
Crystal structure coordination # packing factor close packed directions

• Simple Cubic (SC) 6 0.52 cube edges

• Body Centered Cubic (BCC) 8 0.68 body diagonal

• Face Centered Cubic (FCC) 12 0.74 face diagonal

• Hexagonal Close Pack (HCP) 12 0.74 hexagonal side

METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001

 THEORETICAL DENSITY, 
Density = mass/volume

mass = number of atoms per unit cell * mass of each atom

mass of each atom = atomic weight/avogadro’s number

# atoms/unit cell Atomic weight (g/mol)

 nA
Volume/unit cell Vc N A Avogadro's number
(cm 3 /unit cell) (6.023 x 10 23 atoms/mol)

METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001

Characteristics of Selected Elements at 20C
At. Weight Density Crystal Atomic radius
Element Symbol (amu) (g/cm 3 ) Structure (nm)
Aluminum Al 26.98 2.71 FCC 0.143
Argon Ar 39.95 ------ ------ ------
Barium Ba 137.33 3.5 BCC 0.217
Beryllium Be 9.012 1.85 HCP 0.114
Boron B 10.81 2.34 Rhomb ------ Adapted from
Table, "Charac-
Bromine Br 79.90 ------ ------ ------ teristics of
Cadmium Cd 112.41 8.65 HCP 0.149 Selected
Elements",
Calcium Ca 40.08 1.55 FCC 0.197 inside front
Carbon C 12.011 2.25 Hex 0.071 cover,
Cesium Cs 132.91 1.87 BCC 0.265 Callister 6e.
Chlorine Cl 35.45 ------ ------ ------
Chromium Cr 52.00 7.19 BCC 0.125
Cobalt Co 58.93 8.9 HCP 0.125
Copper Cu 63.55 8.94 FCC 0.128
Flourine F 19.00 ------ ------ ------
Gallium Ga 69.72 5.90 Ortho. 0.122
Germanium Ge 72.59 5.32 Dia. cubic 0.122
Gold Au 196.97 19.32 FCC 0.144
Helium He 4.003 ------ ------ ------
Hydrogen H 1.008 ------ ------ ------
 THEORETICAL DENSITY, 
# atoms/unit cell Atomic weight (g/mol)

 nA
Volume/unit cell Vc N A Avogadro's number
(cm 3 /unit cell) (6.023 x 10 23 atoms/mol)

Example: Copper
Data from Table inside front cover of Callister (see previous slide):
• crystal structure = FCC: 4 atoms/unit cell
• atomic weight = 63.55 g/mol (1 amu = 1 g/mol)
• atomic radius R = 0.128 nm (1 nm = 10-7cm)
Vc = a 3 ; For FCC, a = 4R/ 2 ; Vc = 4.75 x 10 -23 cm 3
Result: theoretical Cu = 8.89 g/cm 3
Compare to actual: Cu = 8.94 g/cm 3
METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001
 DENSITIES OF MATERIAL CLASSES
Graphite/
 metals>  ceramic s>  polymer s Metals/
Alloys
Ceramics/ Polymers
Composites/
fibers
Semicond
Why? 30
Based on data in Table B1, Callister
Platinum
Metals have... 20 Gold, W
Tantalum
*GFRE, CFRE, & AFRE are Glass,
Carbon, & Aramid Fiber-Reinforced
• close-packing Epoxy composites (values based on
60% volume fraction of aligned fibers
(metallic bonding) 10 Silver, Mo
Cu,Ni
in an epoxy matrix).

• large atomic mass Steels

 (g/cm 3 )
Tin, Zinc
Zirconia
Ceramics have... 5
Titanium
4 Al oxide
• less dense packing Diamond
Si nitride
3
(covalent bonding) Aluminum Glass -soda
Concrete
Glass fibers
Silicon PTFE
• often lighter elements 2 Magnesium G raphite
GFRE*
Carbon fibers
Silicone CFRE *
Polymers have... PVC
PET
Aramid fibers
AFRE *
• poor packing 1 PC
HDPE, PS
PP, LDPE
(often amorphous)
• lighter elements (C,H,O) 0.5 Wood
Composites have... 0.4
0.3
• intermediate values Data from Table B1, Callister 6e.
 CRYSTAL SYSTEMS

• Based on shape of unit cell ignoring actual atomic

locations
• Unit cell = 3-dimensional unit that repeats in space
• Unit cell geometry completely specified by a, b, c &
lattice parameters or lattice constants)
• Seven possible combinations of a, b, c & , resulting
in seven crystal systems
METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001
 CRYSTAL SYSTEMS

METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001

 Coordination Number Of The Systems Of Closest
Packing

The coordination number of an atom in a crystal has been

defined as the number of nearest neighbors that it possesses.
This number is 12 for both face-centered cubic and close
packed hexagonal crystal.

METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001

 ANISOTROPY
When the properties of a substance are independent of
direction, the material is said to be isotropy.
But
The physical properties of crystals normally depend strongly
on the direction along which they are measured.
This means that, basically, crystals are not isotropic.

METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001

Anisotropy of crystals
191.1 GPa

Young’s
modulus of
FCC Cu

66.7 GPa
130.3 GPa
METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001
 Anisotropy of crystals (contd.)
Different
crystallographic
planes have
different atomic
density

And hence
different
properties

Si Wafer for
computers
METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001
 Miller Indices of 1. Choose a lattice point on the direction as
the origin
z
Directions
2. Choose a crystal coordinate system
with axes parallel to the unit cell
edges

y 3. Find the coordinates, in terms of

the respective lattice parameters a, b
and c, of another lattice point on the
direction.

1a+1b+0c
x [110]
4. Reduce the coordinates to smallest integers.

5. Put in square brackets […]

METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001
 Miller Indices of Directions (contd.)

z OA=1/2 a + 1/2 b + 1 c
Q z 1/2, 1/2, 1
A
[1 1 2]

y
PQ = -1 a -1 b + 1 c
y
O
-1, -1, 1
P __
x [111]
x

METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001

INDEKS MILLER (Indonesian)
Orientasi dari suatu bidang kristal ditentukan oleh tiga titik yang
terdapat didalam bidang, jika masing2 titik ditempatkan pada suatu titik
yang berbeda, bidang lebih spesifik dengan memberikan koordinat
pada titik tersebut dalam bentuk konstanta kisi, a1,a2, dan a3.

Penentuan indeks ini sangat berguna untuk menganalisa struktur

terhadap orientasi yang lebih spesifik dari suatu bidang dengan
menyatkanya dalam suatu indeks, yang disebut indeks miller. Aturan
untuk menentukan indeks miller :

1. Tentukan perpotongan pada garis axes dari konstanta kisi a1,a2

dan a3. bisa pada cell sederhana ataupun tidak.
2. Kemudian tentukan kebalikan dari ketiga angka ini dan kemudian
jadikan ketiga bilangan integers memiliki rasio yang sama, biasanya
bialang integer paling kecil, dituliskan dalam tanda kurung (hkl).

METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001

 3. Indeks (hkl) merupakan suatu bidang tunggal suatu bidang pararel

4. Jika suatu bidang memotong suatu axis dari bagian negatif, maka
indeks juga dinyatakan dengan negatif, dinyatkan dengan tanda
minus diatas angka indeks (h     l).

1/3

METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001

Perpotongan pada Permukaan Crystal (Weiss Parameters)
Permukaan kristal dapat dinyatakan dengan perpotonganya dengan
garis kristalografic, untuk non-hexagonal tiga kemungkinan
perpotongan :
1. Memotong hanya satu buah bidang
2. Memotong dua buah bidang
3. Memotong tiga buah bidang

METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001

METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001
 Sekarang kita akan mencoba untuk mencocokkan untuk indeks
miller, bagaimana kita dapat menggambar bidang didalam unit cell
kubik. Untuk ini, sekarang kita berusaha untuk mengerjakan dari
(101), (1    0) bidang crystallographic didalam unit cell kubik.

a)     Bidang dengan indeks miller (101).

Tentukan kebalikan dari indeks miller,
dalam kasus ini 1, 0 dan 1
Angka ini sesuai untuk bidang kristalografi
yang melalui unit kubik dengan
perpotongan pada a1=1, a2=0, dan a3=1.

METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001

 b)      Bidang dengan indeks miller (1    0).
Tentukan kebalikan dari indeks miller, yaitu 1, -1 and 0.

METALURGI FISIK 1 TEKNIK MESIN 2010/2001

 Tugas 1

1. Hitung Densitas dari :

1. Chromium
2. Aluminium
3. Gold

2. Tentukan indeks miller dari bidang 3a1, 2a2, 1a3. dan

-2a, 2b, 1c

Tugas dikumpul pada hari selasa tanggal 26 September

2012. Tugas ditulis tangan pada kertas Folio
dikumpulkan langsung maksimum 15 menit setelah
perkuliahan dimulai.
“Miller Indices of directions and planes”, 2006,End of lecture 5
Aug 11, University of Cambridge.