Microfabrication

MILLER INDICES
PROCEDURE FOR FINDING MILLER INDICES
DETERMINATION OF MILLER INDICES
IMPORTANT FEATURES OF MILLER INDICES
CRYSTAL DIRECTIONS
SEPARATION BETWEEN LATTICE PLANES

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 MILLER INDICES
The crystal lattice may be regarded as made
up of an infinite set of parallel equidistant
planes passing through the lattice points
which are known as lattice planes.
In simple terms, the planes passing through
lattice points are called ‘lattice planes’.
For a given lattice, the lattice planes can be
chosen in a different number of ways.

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 MILLER INDICES

DIFFERENT LATTICE PLANES

12
 MILLER INDICES
The orientation of planes or faces in a crystal can be
described in terms of their intercepts on the three
axes.
Miller introduced a system to designate a plane in a
crystal.
He introduced a set of three numbers to specify a
plane in a crystal.
This set of three numbers is known as ‘Miller Indices’
of the concerned plane.
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 MILLER INDICES

Miller indices is defined as the reciprocals of

the intercepts made by the plane on the three
axes.

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 MILLER INDICES

Procedure for finding Miller Indices

Step 1: Determine the intercepts of the plane

along the axes X,Y and Z in terms of
the lattice constants a,b and c.

Step 2: Determine the reciprocals of these

numbers.

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 MILLER INDICES

Step 3: Find the least common denominator (lcd)

and multiply each by this lcd.

Step 4:The result is written in paranthesis.This is

called the `Miller Indices’ of the plane in
the form (h k l).

This is called the `Miller Indices’ of the plane in the form

(h k l).

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 ILLUSTRATION

PLANES IN A CRYSTAL

Plane ABC has intercepts of 2 units along X-axis, 3

units along Y-axis and 2 units along Z-axis.

17 PH 0101 UNIT 4 LECTURE 2

 ILLUSTRATION

DETERMINATION OF ‘MILLER INDICES’

Step 1:The intercepts are 2,3 and 2 on the three axes.

Step 2:The reciprocals are 1/2, 1/3 and 1/2.

Step 3:The least common denominator is ‘6’.

Multiplying each reciprocal by lcd,
we get, 3,2 and 3.

Step 4:Hence Miller indices for the plane ABC is (3 2 3)

PH 0101 UNIT 4 LECTURE 2 18
 MILLER INDICES

IMPORTANT FEATURES OF MILLER INDICES

For the cubic crystal especially, the important features of Miller

indices are,

A plane which is parallel to any one of the co-ordinate axes

has an intercept of infinity (). Therefore the Miller index for
that axis is zero; i.e. for an intercept at infinity, the
corresponding index is zero.

19 PH 0101 UNIT 4 LECTURE 2

 EXAMPLE

( 1 0 0 ) plane

Plane parallel to Y and Z axes

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 EXAMPLE

In the above plane, the intercept along X axis is 1 unit.

The plane is parallel to Y and Z axes. So, the intercepts

along Y and Z axes are ‘’.

Now the intercepts are 1,  and .

The reciprocals of the intercepts are = 1/1, 1/ and 1/.

Therefore the Miller indices for the above plane is (1 0 0).

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Guess the plane ???
 MILLER INDICES

IMPORTANT FEATURES OF MILLER INDICES

A plane passing through the origin is defined in terms of a

parallel plane having non zero intercepts.

All equally spaced parallel planes have same ‘Miller

indices’ i.e. The Miller indices do not only define a particular
plane but also a set of parallel planes. Thus the planes
whose intercepts are 1, 1,1; 2,2,2; -3,-3,-3 etc., are all
represented by the same set of Miller indices.

PH 0101 UNIT 4 LECTURE 2 25

 MILLER INDICES

IMPORTANT FEATURES OF MILLER INDICES

It is only the ratio of the indices which is important in this

notation. The (6 2 2) planes are the same as (3 1 1) planes.

If a plane cuts an axis on the negative side of the origin,

corresponding index is negative. It is represented by a bar,
like (1 0 0). i.e. Miller indices (1 0 0) indicates that the
plane has an intercept in the –ve X –axis.

PH 0101 UNIT 4 LECTURE 2 26

 MILLER INDICES OF SOME IMPORTANT PLANES

27 PH 0101 UNIT 4 LECTURE 2

 PROBLEMS
Worked Example:
A certain crystal has lattice parameters of 4.24, 10 and 3.66 Å on
X,Y, Z axes respectively. Determine the Miller indices of a plane
having intercepts of 2.12, 10 and 1.83 Å on the X, Y and Z axes.
Lattice parameters are = 4.24, 10 and 3.66 Å
The intercepts of the given plane = 2.12, 10 and 1.83 Å
i.e. The intercepts are, 0.5, 1 and 0.5.
Step 1: The Intercepts are 1/2, 1 and 1/2.
Step 2: The reciprocals are 2, 1 and 2.
Step 3: The least common denominator is 2.
Step 4: Multiplying the lcd by each reciprocal we get, 4, 2 and 4.
Step 5: By writing them in parenthesis we get (4 2 4)

Therefore the Miller indices of the given plane is (4 2 4) or (2 1

2).
PH 0101 UNIT 4 LECTURE 2 28
 PROBLEMS

Worked Example:
Calculate the miller indices for the plane with intercepts 2a,
- 3b and 4c the along the crystallographic axes.

The intercepts are 2, - 3 and 4

Step 1: The intercepts are 2, -3 and 4 along the 3 axes

Step 2: The reciprocals are 1 1

, and
1
2 3 4

Step 3: The least common denominator is 12.

Multiplying each reciprocal by lcd, we get 6 -4 and 3

Step 4: Hence theUNIT

PH 0101 Miller indices
4 LECTURE 2 for the plane 629is4 3
 CRYSTAL DIRECTIONS

In crystal analysis, it is essential to indicate certain

directions inside the crystal.
A direction, in general may be represented in terms of
three axes with reference to the origin. In crystal
system, the line joining the origin and a lattice point
represents the direction of the lattice point.

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 CRYSTAL DIRECTIONS

To find the Miller indices of a direction,

Choose a perpendicular plane to that direction.

Find the Miller indices of that perpendicular plane.

The perpendicular plane and the direction have

the same Miller indices value.

Therefore, the Miller indices of the perpendicular

plane is written within a square bracket to
represent the Miller indices of the direction like [ ].

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 IMPORTANT DIRECTIONS IN CRYSTAL

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 PROBLEMS
Worked Example
Find the angle between the directions [2 1 1] and [1 1 2] in a
cubic crystal.

The two directions are [2 1 1] and [1 1 2]

We know that the angle between the two directions,

u1 u 2  v1 v 2  w1 w 2
cos  
(u12  v12  w12 )½  (u 22  v22  w 22 )½

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 PROBLEMS

In this case, u1 = 2, v1 = 1, w1 = 1, u2 = 1, v2 = 1, w2 = 2

(2  1)  (1  1)  (1  2) 5
 cos   
22  12  l2  12  12  22 6

(or) cos  = 0.833

 = 35° 3530.

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 DESIRABLE FEATURES OF MILLER INDICES

The angle ‘’ between any two crystallographic directions

[u1 v1 w1] and [u2 v2 w2] can be calculated easily. The
angle ‘’ is given by,
u1 u 2  v1 v 2  w1 w 2
cos 
(u12  v12  w12 )1/ 2 (u 22  v22  w 22 )1/ 2

The direction [h k l] is perpendicular to the plane (h k l)

35 PH 0101 UNIT 4 LECTURE 2

 DESIRABLE FEATURES OF MILLER INDICES

The relation between the interplanar distance and the

interatomic distance is given by,
a crystal.
d  for cubic
h 2  k 2  l2

If (h k l) is the Miller indices of a crystal plane then the

intercepts made by the plane with the crystallographic
axes are given as a b c
, and
h k l
where a, b and c are the primitives.
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 SEPARATION BETWEEN LATTICE PLANES

Consider a cubic crystal of side ‘a’, and a

plane ABC.
This plane belongs to a family of planes whose
Miller indices are (h k l) because
Miller indices represent a set of planes.
Let ON =d, be the perpendicular distance of the
plane A B C from the origin.

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 SEPARATION BETWEEN LATTICE PLANES

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 SEPARATION BETWEEN LATTICE PLANES

• The interplanar spacing between two

adjacent parallel planes of Miller indices (h k l ) is
given by i.e.Interplanar spacing

a
d   d 2  d1  
h 2  k 2  l2

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 PROBLEMS

Worked Example

The lattice constant for a unit cell of aluminum is 4.031Å Calculate

the interplanar space of (2 1 1) plane.

a = 4.031 Å
(h k l) = (2 1 1)
a 4.031  10 10
Interplanar spacing d 
h 2  k 2  l2 2 2  12  12
 d = 1.6456 Å
40 PH 0101 UNIT 4 LECTURE 2
 PROBLEMS
Worked Example:
Find the perpendicular distance between the two planes indicated
by the Miller indices (1 2 1) and (2 1 2) in a unit cell of a cubic
lattice with a lattice constant parameter ‘a’.
We know the perpendicular distance between the origin and the
plane is (1 2 1) and the perpendicular distance between the origin and
the plane d(2 1 2), a a a
1   
h12  k12  l12 12  22  12 6
a a a a
d2    
h 22  k 22  l 22 2 2  12  2 2 9 3

The perpendicular distance between the planes (1 2 1) and (2 1 2) are,

d = d 1 – d2 = a a 3a  6a a(3  6)
  
(or) d = 0.0749 a. 6 3 3 6 3 6

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 Silicon, Si:
P type= Always Boron (B) Doped 
N type= Dopant typically as follows:
Res: .001-.005 Arsenic (As)
Res: .005-.025 Antimony (Sb)
Res: >.1 Phosphorous (P)
Wafer Flats:
Purpose and Function
Orientation for automatic equipment
Indicate type and orientation of crystal
Primary Flat = The flat of longest length located in the circumference of
the wafer. The primary flat has a specified crystal orientation relative to the
wafer surface; major flat.

Secondary Flat = Indicates the crystal orientation and doping of the wafer.
The location of this flat varies. 
 Standard wafer sizes
1-inch (25 mm)
2-inch (51 mm). Thickness 275 µm.
3-inch (76 mm). Thickness 375 µm.
4-inch (100 mm). Thickness 525 µm.
5-inch (130 mm) or 125 mm (4.9 inch).
Thickness 625 µm.
150 mm (5.9 inch, usually referred to as
"6 inch"). Thickness 675 µm.
200 mm (7.9 inch, usually referred to as
"8 inch"). Thickness 725 µm.
300 mm (11.8 inch, usually referred to as
"12 inch"). Thickness 775 µm.
450 mm (17.7 inch). Thickness 925 µm
(proposed)
Crystal Orientations and Si wafers
Preparation of the Silicon Wafer
&
Wafer Cleaning
 Silicon Wafer
Single die

Wafer

P type or N type wafer

Standard wafer sizes
1-inch (25 mm). Thickness 275 µm.
2-inch (51 mm). Thickness 275 µm.
3-inch (76 mm). Thickness 375 µm.
4-inch (100 mm). Thickness 525 µm.
5-inch (130 mm) or 125 mm (4.9 inch). Thickness 625 µm.
150 mm (5.9 inch, usually referred to as "6 inch"). Thickness
675 µm.
200 mm (7.9 inch, usually referred to as "8 inch"). Thickness
725 µm.
300 mm (11.8 inch, usually referred to as "12 inch"). Thickness
775 µm.
450 mm ("18 inch"). Thickness 925 µm (expected).[12
Micromachining, Microfabrication.
Why silicon?

Abundant, cheap, easy to process.

It can be subjected to a large verity of processing steps without the

problem of decomposition that are ever present with semiconductors

Silicon has wider energy gap than germinium,Consequently it can be

fabricated into microcircuit capable of operating at higher temperature.
(125 to175 oc)

Silicon planar Integrated Circuit (IC) Fabrication

 Crystalline orientation

Wafers are grown from crystal having a regular crystal

structure, with silicon having a diamond cubic structure
with a lattice spacing of 5.430710 Å (0.5430710 nm).
When cut into wafers, the surface is aligned in one of
several relative directions known as crystal orientations.
Orientation is defined by the Miller index
Miller indices are a notation system in crystallography for
planes and directions in crystal (Bravais) lattices.
In particular, a family of lattice planes is determined by
three integers ℓ, m, and n, the Miller indices
 Flats to denote
substrate types and
orientation

Miller indices respect to central lattice

Wafer Resistivity
Resistivity: The resistance to current flow and movement of
electron and hole carries in the silicon.
Resistivity is related to the ratio of voltage across the silicon to
the current flowing through the silicon per unit volume of
silicon.
The units for resistivity are Ohmcm, and these are the units
used to specify the resistivity of silicon wafers and crystals.
Resistivity is controlled by adding impurities such as As,
Phos., and Boron to the silicon.
As the amount of impurity or dopant is increased, the
resistivity is decreased.
 Heavy doped material has low resistivity.
Crystal Growth and Wafer Slicing Process

The first step in the wafer manufacturing

process is the formation of a large, perfect silicon
crystal.
The crystal is grown from a ‘seed crystal’ that is a
perfect crystal.
The silicon is supplied in granular powder form, then
melted in a crucible. The seed is immersed carefully
into the crucible of molten silicon, then slowly
withdrawn.
Step 1: Obtaining the Sand
The sand used to grow the wafers has to be a very clean
and good form of silicon. For this reason not just
any sand scraped off the beach will do. Most of the sand
used for these processes is shipped from the
beaches of Australia.
Step 2: Preparing the Molten Silicon Bath
The sand (SiO2)is taken and put into a crucible and is
heated to about 1600 degrees C – just above its
melting point. The molten sand will become the source of
the silicon that will be the wafer.
The Czochralski method
Step 3: Making the Ingot
A pure silicon seed crystal is now placed into the molten sand
bath. This crystal will be pulled out slowly as it is rotated. The
dominant technique is known as the Czochralski (cz) method.
The result is a pure silicon cylinder that is called an ingot.
Examples of some completed ingots
 Step 3: Making the Ingot

This step is done to provide a good clean surface for later processing. If a
layer of Silicon is grown onto
the top of the wafer using chemical methods then that layer is of a much
better quality then the slightly
damaged or unclean layer of silicon in the wafer. The epitaxial layer is
where the actual processing will bedone.
The diameter of the silicon ingot is determined by the
temperature variables as well as the rate at which the
ingot is withdrawn. When the ingot is the correct
length, it is removed, then ground to a uniform
external surface and diameter.
Each of the wafers is given either a notch or a flat
edge that will be used later in orienting the wafer into
the exact position for later procedures.
epitaxial reactor
Step 4: Preparing the Wafers
After the ingot is ground into the correct diameter for the
wafers, the silicon ingot is sliced into very thin wafers. This is
usually done with a diamond saw.

Each of these wafers will then go through polishing until

they are very smooth and just the right thickness
Thickness Sorting

Following slicing, silicon wafers are often sorted on an

automated basis into batches of uniform thickness to increase
productivity in the next process step,lapping. During thickness
sorting, the wafer manufacturer can also identify defect
trends resulting from the slicing process.
Lapping & Etching Processes
Lapping removes the surface silicon which has been cracked or
otherwise damaged by the slicing process, and assures a flat surface.
Wafers are then etched in a chemically active reagent to remove any
crystal damage remaining from the previous process step.
Thickness Sorting and Flatness Checking

Following lapping or etching, silicon wafers are measured for

flatness to identify and control defect trends resulting from the
lapping and etching processes. Wafers are also often sorted on an
automated basis according to thickness in order to increase
productivity in the next process step, polishing.
Polishing Process
Polishing is a chemical/mechanical process that smoothes the
uneven surface left by the lapping and etching processes and
makes the wafer flat and smooth enough to support optical
photolithography.

A wafer polishing machine Wafers in storage trays

Final
Final Dimensional and Electrical
Properties Qualification

The wafers undergo a final test, performed in order to demonstrate

conformance with customer specification for flatness, thickness,
resistivity and type. Process induced defect and defect trend
information is used by the wafer manufacturer for yield and process
management of the immediately preceding steps. Information
regarding surface defects, such as scratches and particles, and defect
trend information are used by the wafer manufacturer for yield and
process improvement.
Wafer cleaning
Werner Kern developed the basic procedure in 1965 while working for
RCA, the Radio Corporation of America  The RCA clean is a standard set
of wafer cleaning steps which need to be performed before high temp
processing steps

It involves the following:

Removal of the organic contaminants (Organic Clean)

Removal of thin oxide layer (Oxide Strip)
Removal of ionic contamination (Ionic Clean)

Before RCA Cleaning There is ultrasonic Cleaning

It Removes any Particle on the surface. Some of the basic particle are
stick to the surface.
Boiled the wafer into H2So4, Top layer is oxidized, Organic component
are oxidized.
HF Deep: Removes Sio2 But does not dissolve Si
Removes oxide layer & organic impurities.
RCA Cleaning
1. The wafers are prepared by soaking them in DI water The first step (called
SC-1, where SC stands for Standard Clean , is performed with a
1:1:5 solution of NH4OH (ammonium hydroxide) + H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide)
+ H2O (water) at 75 or 80 °C
typically for 10 minutes. This treatment results in the formation of a thin
silicon dioxide layer (about 10 Angstrom) on the silicon surface, along with a
certain degree of metallic contamination (notably Iron) that shall be removed
in subsequent steps.
This is followed by transferring the wafers into a DI water bath.
2. The second step is a short immersion in a 1:50 solution of HF + H 2O at
25 °C, in order to remove the thin oxide layer and some fraction of ionic
contaminants.
3. The third and last step (called SC-2) is performed with a 1:1:6 solution of
HCl + H2O2 + H2O at 75 or 80 °C.
This treatment effectively removes the remaining traces of metallic (ionic)
contaminants.