Z O O L O G Y 102.

1
C O M PA R AT I V E A N A T O M Y O F V E R T E B R A T E S

ANATOMY OF THE
MUSCULOSKELETAL
SYSTEM: APPENDAGES
 INTRODUCTION
Two kinds of tissues make up the endoskeleton of vertebrates:
bone and cartilage. During early embryonic development, the
endoskeleton is made up of the notochord and cartilage. In most
vertebrates, the notochord is replaced by the vertebral column, and in
most adults, cartilage is replaced by bone.

Although the primary function of the endoskeleton is to

provide support, it also acts as a point of attachment for
muscle and a mechanism for conveying muscular forces.
 PHYLOGENETICALLY SPEAKING,
MUSCLES ARE RELATIVELY PLASTIC ORGANS.
 MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEMS OF VERTEBRATES, THE ORIGIN,
INSERTION, AND FUNCTION OF VARIOUS APPENDICULAR MUSCLES

Table 1. Muscles of the appendages of a shark

MUSCLE ORIGIN INSERTION FUNCTION
Pectoral abductor Scapulacoracoid cartilage Basal and radial Elevates pectoral fin
pterygiophores
Pectoral adductor Scapularocoracoid
cartilage
Basal and radial
pterygiophores Depresses pectoral fin

Pelvic abductor Hypaxial myomeres and Radial pterygiophores Elevates pelvic fin
iliac process

Pelvic adductor  
 Metapterygium  Radial pterygiophores
 Distal  Puboischiatic plate  Metapterygium Depresses pelvic fin
 Proximal  
Table 2.1. Muscles of the forelimb of a cat.
MUSCLE ORIGIN INSERTION FUNCTION
Posterior margin of acromion of
Lateral surface of spinodeltoid muscle Flexes and rotates humerus laterally
Acromiodeltoid scapula
   
 
Middorsal line from neural process of Metacromion process and anterior half of
Acromiotrapezius Adducts and stabilizes scapulae
axis to 4th thoracic, by aponeurosis spine of scapula
Small tubercle near dorsal margin of
Biceps brachii Bicipital tuberosity of radius, by tendon Flexes antebrachium
glenoid fossa of scapula, by tendon
Lateral surface of ulna, just distal to
Brachialis Lateral surface of humerus Flexes antebrachium
semilunar notch
Brachioradialis Midshaft of humerus Styloid process of radius Supinates manus
Clavicle and raphe shared with Medial surface of ulna, just distal to
Clavobrachialis Flexes antebrachium
clavotrapezius semilunar notch
Medial half of nuchal crest of skull and
Clavicle and raphe shared with
Clavotrapezius middorsal line up to neural process of Draws scapula anterodorsally
clavobrachialis
axis
Turns head when clavicle
Cleidomastoid Mastoid process of temporal Clavicle stabilizes; draws clavicle
anteriorly when head stabilized
Medial surface of proximal end of
Coracobrachialis Coracoid process of scapula humerus Adducts humerus

Epitrochlearis Surface of latissimus dorsi
Infraspinatus Infraspinous fossa of scapula
Latissimus dorsi Thoracolumbar fascia
Occipital bone and transverse process
Levator scapulae ventralis
of atlas
Olecranon process of ulna, by fascia Extends antebrachium
Greater tuberosity of humerus Rotates humerus laterally
Medial surface of proximal diaphysis of Draws humerus
humerus posterodorsally
Ventrally on metacromion and Draws
infraspinous fossa of scapula scapula
anteriorly
Table 2.1. Muscles of the forelimb of a cat. continued
MUSCLE
Pectoantebrachialis
Pectoralis major
Pectoralis minor
Rhomboideus
Rhomboideus capitis
Serratus ventralis cervicis
Serratus ventralis thoracis
Spinodeltoid
ORIGIN INSERTION FUNCTION
fascia covering proximal surface of
manubrium of sternum adducts humerus
antebrachium
Anterior sternebrae pectoral ridge of humerus adducts humerus
Body of sternum pectoral ridge of humerus adducts humerus
posterior cervical and anterior thoracic
posterior part of dorsal border of scapula draws scapula toward vertebral column
vertebrae
medial portion of nuchal crest anterior part of dorsal border of scapula rotates and draws scapula anteriorly
medial surface of scapula, near dorsal
transverse processes of 3rd to 7th
border draws scapula anteroventrally
cervical vertebrae
lateral surface of first 9 or 10 ribs draws scapula ventrally, helps support trunk
medial edge of scapula, near dorsal border
on forelimb
middle third of spine of scapula deltoid ridge of humerus flexes and laterally rotates humerus

middorsal line from neural processes of tuberosity of spine of scapula; fascia of

Spinotrapezius most thoracic vertebrae draws scapula posterodorsally
supraspinatus and infraspinatus muscles

adducts humerus
Subscapularis subscapular fossa of scapula lesser tuberosity of humerus
extends humerus
Supraspinatus suprapinous fossa of scapula greater tuberosity of humerus
dorsal third of posterior border of medial surface of humerus, by tendon in flexes and medially
Teres major
scapula common latissimus dorsi rotates humerus
flexes and
vertebrae laterally
Teres minor greater tuberosity of humerus
rotates
humerus
Table 2.1. Muscles of the forelimb of a cat. continued
MUSCLE ORIGIN INSERTION FUNCTION
Triceps brachii all 3 heads of the triceps brachii insert all 3 heads of the triceps brachii act to
 Lateral head  deltoid ridge of humerus on the olecranon process of ulna by a extend antebrachium
 Long head  posterior border of scapula, common tendon
 Medial head near glenoid fossa
 xiphoid process of sternum
Xiphihumeralis xiphoid process of sternum near distal border of bicipital groove adducts forelimb
of humerus

Table 2.2. Muscles of the hind limb of a cat.

MUSCLE ORIGIN INSERTION FUNCTION
Adductor femoris pubis and ischium shaft of femur (linea aspera) adducts and extends thigh
Adductor longus /
adducts thigh
adductor anterior margin of pubis shaft of femur (linea aspera)
 extensor of thigh—wiscnitzer
 femoris longus
Articularis coxae / flexor of thigh—crouch—probably
ilium anterior surface of femur
capsularis right
by broad aponeurosis to patella and
Biceps femoris ischial tuberosity flexes thigh
proximal half of tibia
Coccygeus / abductor dorsal margin of ilium and
2nd to 5th caudal vertebrae flexes crus, abducts thigh
caudae internus ischium
distal phalanges of digits 2 to 5, by
Extensor digitorum longus lateral epicondyle of femur flexes tail
tendon that branches into 4 portions
Table 2.2. Muscles of the hind limb of a cat. continued
MUSCLE
Flexor digitorum longus
Flexor hallucis longus
Gastrocnemius
Gemellus caudalis / inferior
Gemellus cranialis / superior
Gluteofemoralis /
caudofemoralis /
coccygeofemoralis / gluteobiceps
Gluteus superficialis / maximus
Gluterus medius
Gluteus profundus / minimus
Gracilis
Iliopsoas
Obturatorius externus
Obturatorius internus
Pectineus
ORIGIN
proximal portion of fibula and tibia
proximal portion of fibula and tibia
lateral and medial epicondyles of femur,
and patella
dorsolateral surface of ischium, anterior
to ischial tuberosity
dorsal margin of ischium and ilium
anterior caudal vertebrae
posterior sacral and anterior caudal
vertebrae, and gluteal fascia
posterior sacral and anterior caudal
vertebrae, dorsolateral surface of ilium,
and sacral fascia
ventrolateral surface of ilium
pubic and ischial symphyses
lumbar and posterior thoracic vertebrae,
and ilium
ischium and pubis
ischium and connective tissue covering
obturator foramen
anterior margin of pubis
INSERTION FUNCTION
joins tendon of flexor hallucis longus to
extends digits 2 to 5; flexes pes
distal phalanges of digits 2 to 5 
joins tendon of flexor hallucis longus to
flexes digits 2 to 5 and extends pes
distal phalanges of digits 2 to 5 
by tendon onto proximal end of calcaneum,
extends pes; flexes crus
together with tendon of soleus muscle
tendon of obturatorius internus abducts thigh
greater trochanter of femur abducts and outwardly rotates thigh
patella abducts thigh and extends crus
distal part of greater trochanter of femur abducts thigh
proximal part of greater trochanter of
abducts thigh
femur
Gluteus profundus/
lateral part of greater trochanter of femur
minimus Gracilis
proximomedial surface of tibia, crural abducts and outwardly rotates thigh
lesser trochanter of femur adducts thigh, flexes crus
trochanteric fossa of femur flexes and rotates thigh
trochanteric fossa of femur abducts thigh
surface of femur, just distal to lesser
adducts thigh
trochanter
Table 2.2. Muscles of the hind limb of a cat. continued
MUSCLE ORIGIN INSERTION FUNCTION
Peroneus brevis/fibularis brevis distal half of fibula lateral surface of metatarsal 5 extends pes
by tendon onto proximal part of
Peroneus longus proximal half of fibula flexes and everts pes
metatarsals 2 to 4
Peroneus tertius/extensor extends and abducts 5th digit; flexor or
lateral surface of fibula tendon of extensor digitorum longus
digitorum lateralis pes— crouch; extends ankle joint—H&W
posterior sacral and anterior caudal
Piriformis/pyriformis greater trochanter of femur abducts thigh
vertebrae
by tendon extending past proximal end of
Plantaris/flexor digitorum extends pes (and, through flexor digitorum
lateral epicondyle of femur and patella calcaneum and onto tendon of flexor
superficialis brevis, flexes digits 2 to 5)
digitorum brevis
Popliteus lateral epicondyle of femur proximal third of medial surface of tibia flexes crus and rotates tibia medially
greater trochanter and lesser trochanter of
Quadratus femoris ischial tuberosity extends and outwardly rotates thigh
femur
ventral margin of ilium anterior to
Rectus femoris lateral surface of patella extends crus
acetabulum
iliac crest and anteromedial margin of proximomedial surface of tibia, and adducts thigh, contributes
Sartorius
ilium patella to extension of crus
ischial tuberosity and posterior margin
Semimembranosus distomedial surface of femur extends thigh, flexes crus
of ilium
Semitendinosus ischial tuberosity proximomedial surface of tibia flexes crus, extends thigh
proximal end of calcaneum (with tendon
Soleus proximal third of fibula extends pes
of gastrocnemius)
fascia lata, which merges with proximal
Tensor fasciae latae anteroventral surface of ilium flexes thigh
part of aponeurosis of biceps femoris
Table 2.2. Muscles of the hind limb of a cat. continued
MUSCLE
Tenuissimus/abductor cruris
caudalis
Tibialis cranialis/anterior
Tibialis caudalis/posterior
Vastus intermedius
Vastus lateralis
Vastus medialis
Table 3. Muscles of the forelimb (wings) and hind limb of a pigeon.
MUSCLE
Biceps brachii
Deltoideus major
Deltoideus minor
Expansor secundariorum
ORIGIN
anterior caudal vertebra
proximolateral surface of tibia and
proximomedial surface of fibula
proximal end of tibia and fibula
anterior surface of femur
greater trochanter and dorsolateral
surface of femur
shaft of femur
ORIGIN
by two flat tendons: caput humerale
and caput coracoideum
lateral surface of the cranial part of
the scapula
entire dorsocranial surface of the
caput acrocoracoidei, and on the
dorsal surface of the acromion of
scapula
long tendon from scapula and fascia
of scapula-humeralis posetior muscle
and distal end of the humerus
INSERTION FUNCTION
may serve as a tension sensor;
crural fascia and tibia, with aponeurosis of
effectiveness as extensor of thigh or
biceps femoris
flexor of crus is probably minimal
metatarsal 1 flexes pes
navicular and intermediate cuneiform (tarsals) extends pes
patella (capsule of knee joint) extends crus
lateral surface of patella extends crus
medial surface of patella (and patellar
extends crus
ligament)
INSERTION FUNCTION
posterior surface of radius flexes forearm
distal half of humerus pulls humerus medially and posteriorly
great trochanter of humerus contributes to the elavation of the wing
bases of proximal secondaries expansion of the remiges
Table 3. Muscles of the forelimb (wings) and hind limb of a pigeon. continued
MUSCLE ORIGIN INSERTION FUNCTION
Latissimus dorsi
 pars cranialis  
 processes spinosus of the
 pars caudalis second and third thoracic  caudal surface of the proximal
third of the humerus draws humerus medially
vertebrae and interspinous
 between the humerotriceps and  
ligaments
the pars cranialis at the
 pelvic fascia and on the crista
procimal part of the humerus
iliaca dorsalis of the pelvis
Pectoralis sternum humerus depressor of wing
processes spinosus and
interspinous ligaments of the last vertebral border of the scapula
Rhomboideus profundus draws the scapula medially
cervical and 1-6 thoracic beneath the rhomboideus externus
vertebrae
processes spinosus of the last
cervical and 1-6 thoracic
draws scapula medially
Rhomboideus superficialis vertebrae and cranial edge of the scapula
toward vertebrae
synsacrum and interspinous
ligaments
dorsal branch of the ligamentum
Scapulotriceps scapulohumerale and by a large olecranon process of ulna extends the forearm
tendon
sternal keel and the cranial
Supracoracoideus anterodorsal surface of humerus elevator of wing
portion of the sternal plate
Table 4. Some homologies of appendicular muscles of shark, pigeon, and cat.
SHARK PIGEON
Pectoral abductor (ventral) (Dorsal)
1. Latissimus dorsi
2. Scapular deltoid
 
 
Pectoral adductor (dorsal) (Ventral)
1. Pectoralis
2. Supracoracoideus
3. Biceps brachii
Fin motions are neither complex nor powerful,
and the appendicular muscles are anatomically simple.
CAT
(Dorsal)
1. Latissimus dorsi
2. Teres major
2.1 acromiodeltoid
2.2 spinodeltoid
(Ventral)
1. Pectoralis complex
2.1 supraspinatus
2.2 infraspinatus
3. Biceps brachii
 The limbs become the primary organs for support and movement,
and the appendicular muscles grow equally powerful and diverse.

The limb muscles also act as flexible links, allowing the

bones at a joint to be fixed and the body to be supported

The ventral adductor muscles, for example, are significantly large and powerful, and
the region from which they originate is widened by sternum expansion and the
formation of a broad sternal keel.
Similarly, the pectoralis plays an important part in the downstroke of
the humerus, but so does a ventral muscle, the supracoracoideus,
which is also active in the upstroke.
Table 5. Comparative anatomy of appendicular muscles of shark, pigeon, and cat.
APPENDICULAR MUSCLE SHARK PIGEON CAT
Adductor muscles Dorsal; flex fins Ventral; recovery Ventral; recovery

Abductor muscles Ventral; extend fins Dorsal; propulsive Dorsal; propulsive

Other characteristics Intrinsic muscles are Intrinsic musculature is More diverse and powerful
limited in number & reduced; pectoralis
undifferentiated (downstroke muscle) and
supracoracoideus (upstroke
muscle) are enlarged

Function Balance and orientation Support and locomotion Support and locomotion
 CONCLUSION
Around 390 million years ago, tetrapods (four-limbed vertebrates)
began to travel from water to land, sparking the emergence of lizards,
birds, mammals, and all terrestrial animals that exist today, including
humans. Studying comparative anatomy not only helps in identifying
evolutionary patterns of structures found in vertebrates, but also helps
examine the significance of evolutionary adaptations across vertebrate
lineages. Furthermore, examining the structural similarities and
differences of organisms are essential elements in identifying and
classifying species.
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other-systems-in-pigeon/41283.

Razmadze, D., Panyutina, A. A., & Zelenkov, N. V. (2018). Anatomy of the forelimb musculature
and ligaments of Psittacus Erithacus (Aves: Psittaciformes). Journal of Anatomy,
233(4), 496–530. https://doi.org/10.1111/joa.12861

Walker, W. F., Jr., & Noback, C. R. (2021). Muscular system. AccessScience. Retrieved October 17,
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