Chapter Four

Implementation of Discrete-Time
Systems
 Introduction

• A discrete-time system processes a given input sequence x[n] to generates

an output sequence y[n] with more desirable properties.

• In most applications, the discrete-time system is a single-input, single-

output system:
 Cont.…

• Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) System - A system satisfying both the linearity and the
time-invariance property.

• LTI systems are mathematically easy to analyze and characterize, and

consequently, easy to design.

• Highly useful signal processing algorithms have been developed utilizing this
class of systems over the last several decades.
Cont.…

• For a linear shift-invariant system with a rational system function, the input
and output are related by a linear constant coefficient difference equation.
Classification of Discrete Time System
Based on Impulse Response Length:

• The output y[n] of an FIR LTI discrete-time system can be computed directly
from the convolution sum as it is a finite sum of products.

• If the impulse response h[n] is of finite length, then its known as finite impulse
response (FIR) system.

i.e h[n]=0 for n<M1 and n>M2, M1<M2, where both M1,M2 are finite
Cont.…

• The term finite impulse response arises because the filter output is
computed as a weighted, finite term sum, of past, present, and perhaps
future values of the filter input.

• Since IIR , it is impossible to implement the system with discrete

convolution.

• Instead, to implement this system, the difference equation can be

employed.
 Cont.…
• If the impulse response is of infinite length, then it is known as an infinite
impulse response (IIR) discrete-time system.

• The class of IIR systems we are concerned with in this course are characterized
by linear constant coefficient difference equations.
 Filter Implementation
• For a linear shift-invariant system the input-output transformation can be
computed in different ways, each ways is called system implementation.

• It’s a specific descriptor of its internal computational structure

• The representation often used in implementation of LTI system is difference

equation or the system function, which converted to structures that can be realized
in software or hardware.

• Implementation mainly concerns with computational and memory requirements

Cont.…
• When causality is assumed, a LTI filter can be uniquely characterized by its
transfer function H(z) or the corresponding difference equation.

Or

where x[n] and y[n] are the system input and output
Cont.…
 Cont.…

• The basic computational elements required to find the output at time n are:
Delay elements or storage
Multipliers
Adders (subtraction is considered as addition)
 Cont.…
• Computations of y[n] can be arranged in different ways to give the same difference
equation, which leads to different structures for realization of discrete-time LTI
systems.

• It is often convenient to use a block diagram/signal flow graph to illustrate how

these adders, multipliers, and delays are interconnected to implement a given
system.

• 4 basic forms of implementations, namely, direct form, canonic form, cascade

form and parallel form will ben described
Block Diagram Representation
Signal Flow Graph Representation
Cont.…

• A signal flow graph, which is a network of directed branches that are connected at
nodes.

• Each branch has an input and an output, with the direction indicated by an
arrowhead.

• The nodes in a flow graph correspond to either adders or branch points. Adders
correspond to nodes with more than one incoming branch, and branch points are
nodes with more than one outgoing branch.
 Block Diagram Representation

• Consider a system with a second-order linear difference equation

y[n] = a1y[n − 1] + a2y[n − 2] + b0x[n].

• The block diagram representation is as follows

Example:
Structures for IIR Filter

• When there is at least one pole in H(z), it corresponds to an IIR filter. The
corresponding system function (frequency response) when a0=1.
Cont.…
 Direct Form I
• The below implementations of a difference equation are called direct forms, as
the coefficients are used directly in the block diagram.

• The first implementation, where the numerator is implemented before the

denominator, is called direct form I. The second implementation, where the
denominator is implemented before the numerator, is called direct form II.

• A canonic form implementation means that the minimum number of delay

elements is used in the implementation. Therefore, the direct form II
implementation is also called canonic direct form.
Alternative form of Direct form I
Direct form II (Canonic)

• Its just the result of reversing the order of two blocks used for representing
transfer function.
Blocks Representation
Example: Direct Form I & II
Structural implementation
Cascade Structures
• Here transfer function is expressed as multiplication of two smaller
transfer function.(i.e. factorization)
Example 1:Cascade Structures
Example 2:Cascade Structures
 Parallel Structures
• The transfer function is expressed as sum of smaller transfer function.
(i.e. Partial fraction)
Example 1:Parallel Structures
Example 2:Parallel Structures
Transposed form
Structures for FIR Filter
Cascade FIR
Lattice structure for IIR
and FIR Systems………
(Reading assignment)