Seeley'S Essentials Of: Anatomy & Physiology Eleventh Edition Cinnamon Vanputte Jennifer Regan Andrew Russo

Because learning changes everything.
Chapter 2
The Chemical Basis of Life
Lecture Outline
Seeley’s ESSENTIALS OF
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
Eleventh Edition
Cinnamon VanPutte
Jennifer Regan
Andrew Russo
Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.
Basic Chemistry
• Matter: anything that occupies space and has mass

(solid, liquid, or gas)
• Mass: amount of matter in an object
• Weight: gravitational force acting on object
Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 2
Elements and Atoms
Element:
• simplest form of matter
• Example: C, H, O, N, Ca, K, Na, Cl
Atom:
• smallest particle of an element
• contains protons, electrons,
and neutrons
Planetary Models of Atomic Structure
Figure 2.1
Access the text alternative for slide images.
Subatomic Particles
• Proton: positive charged particle located inside the

nucleus
• Neutron: neutral charged particle located inside the
nucleus
• Electron: negative charged particle located outside the
nucleus
Atomic Number and Atomic Mass
• Atomic number: the number of protons in each atom
• Mass number: the number of protons and neutrons in

each atom
• ISOTOPES - 2 or more forms of the same element that
have the same number of protons and electrons but have
different number of Neutrons
Chemical Bonds
Chemical bonds occur when outermost electrons

(valence shell electrons) are transferred or shared between
atoms
Octet Rule
Types of chemical bonds

• Ionic
• Covalent
• Hydrogen
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
Ions and Ionic Bonding
Ion: a charged atom formed because of a donation or gain

of an electron(s)
• Example: Na+, Cl− Ionic bonding occurs when there is an

attraction between two oppositely charged ions
• Example: NaCl
Ionic Bonding
Figure 2.3a
Access the text alternative for slide images
Covalent Bonding 1
Covalent bonding occurs when atoms share one or more

pairs of electrons
• Example: hydrogen molecule (H2)
Polar covalent bonds form when there is an unequal

sharing of electrons between atoms of the bond
• Example: water (H2O)
Polar molecules have an asymmetrical electrical charge

Nonpolar molecules have a symmetrical electrical charge,
electrons are shared equally
Covalent Bonding 2
Figure 2.4
Polar Covalent Bonds
Polar covalent bonded

molecules, like water,
have a positive end and a
negative end
Figure 2.5
Molecules and Compounds
Molecule:
• 2 or more atoms chemically combine
• Example: water (H2O)
Compound:
• chemical combination of 2 or more different types of atoms
• Example: NaCl
Intermolecular Forces
Weak charge attractions between separate molecules or

between ions and molecules:
• No exchange of electrons is involved
• Due to attractions between oppositely charged regions of
molecules
• Example: hydrogen bond
Hydrogen Bonding 1
• Polar molecules, like water, have a positive end and a

negative end
• A hydrogen bond forms when the positive end of one
polar molecule is weakly attracted to the negative end of
another polar molecule
• The hydrogen bond is a weaker bond than ionic or
covalent bonds
Hydrogen Bonds
Figure 2.6
Dissociation 1
When ionic compounds dissolve in water they dissociate

from each other.
• Positively charged ions are attracted to the negative ends
of the water molecules.
• Negatively charged ions are attracted to the positive ends
of the water molecules
• Dissociated ions can be called electrolytes because they
can conduct an electrical current
Dissociation 2
Figure 2.7
Chemical Reactions
• Chemical reactions occur when there is a formation or

breaking of chemical bonds between atoms, ions,
molecules, or compounds.
• Reactants: substances that enter into the reaction
• Products: substances that result from the reaction
A+B → C+D
Reactants Product
Types of Chemical Reactions 1
Synthesis reaction:
• build a new molecule
• energy-requiring
• Example: ADP + P → ATP
Decomposition reaction:
• break down molecule
• energy-releasing
• Example: ATP → ADP + P
Exchange reaction:
• combination of synthesis and decomposition reactions
• Example: AB + CD → AC + BD
• Example: HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
• Reversible reactions occur when the reaction can run in

the opposite direction, so that the products are converted
back to the original reactants.
CO2 + H2O ⇄ H+ + HCO3
• Equilibrium: when the rate of product formation equals

the rate of reactant formation
Energy
• Energy is the capacity to do work.
• Work is the moving of matter.
• Kinetic energy is energy in motion
• Potential energy is stored energy
Chemical Energy 3
An example of a reaction that releases energy is the

breakdown of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) to ADP
(adenosine diphosphate) and Pi (a phosphate group).
ATP → ADP + Pi + energy used by cells
Energy and Chemical Reactions
Figure 2.8
Rate of Chemical Reactions 1
The rate at which a chemical reaction proceeds is influenced

by several factors:
• catalyst
• concentration of the reactants
• temperature
• Catalyst: increases the rate of a reaction without itself

being permanently changed or depleted.
• An enzyme is a protein catalyst that increases the rate of
reactions within the human body.
• Enzymes increase the rate of reactions by lowering the
activation energy needed to start the reaction.
Activation Energy and Enzymes
Figure 2.9
Concentration of the reactants: within limits the higher the

concentration of reactants the faster the rate
Temperature: within limits, the higher the temperature the

faster the rate
Acids and Bases
Acid: a proton H+ donor

• pH below 7
• Example: HCl (hydrochloric acid)
Base: a proton H+ acceptor

• pH above 7
• Example: NaOH (sodium hydroxide)
• SALT
• BUFFER
pH Scale
Figure 2.10a
Inorganic Chemistry versus Organic Chemistry
• Inorganic chemistry deals with those substances that do

not contain carbon
• Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-containing
substances
• Exception: some carbon containing compounds are not
organic in that they do not also contain hydrogen, such as
CO2 (carbon dioxide)
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
Oxygen (O2) is a small, nonpolar, inorganic molecule.
• Two oxygen atoms bound together by a double covalent

bond
• Essential for most living organisms
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is an inorganic molecule composed
one carbon atom bound to two oxygen atoms.
• Produced when food molecules are metabolized in cells
Water 1
Water (H2O) is a polar molecule composed of two hydrogen

atoms bound to an oxygen atom by polar covalent bonds.
Attracted to other polar molecules:
• Molecules attracted to water are called hydrophilic.
• Molecules not attracted to water are called hydrophobic.
Water 2
Water is essential to life because it performs the following

functions:
• Water stabilizes body temperature
• Water protects the body
• Water is required for many chemical reactions
Organic Molecules
• Carbon’s ability to form covalent bonds with other atoms

makes it possible the formation of large, diverse,
complicated molecules for life.
• The four major groups of organic molecules essential to

living organisms are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and
nucleic acids.
Carbohydrates 1
Characteristics of Carbohydrates
• Contain C, H, O
• H:O is a 2:1 ratio

• Example: C6H12O6
• Monosaccharides are the building blocks.
• Monosaccharide:
• simple sugar (1 sugar)
• Examples: glucose and fructose
Carbohydrates 2
Disaccharide:
• 2 sugars
• Example: glucose + fructose = sucrose
• Example: glucose + galactose = lactose
Polysaccharide:
• many sugars
• Example: starch, grain, vegetables, glycogen
Carbohydrates 3
Important functions of carbohydrates in humans:

• Carbohydrates provide parts of other organic molecules
(for example nucleotides in DNA)
• Carbohydrates are broken down to provide energy.
• When undigested carbohydrates provide bulk (fiber) in

feces.
Carbohydrates 4
Glycogen is the main storage form of glucose in humans.

• Quickly broken down by cells to make ATP
Starch and cellulose are important polysaccharides found in
plants.
• Humans ingest starch and use it to make ATP.
• Humans cannot digest cellulose but it provides the fiber
which is necessary in our diets.
Carbohydrates 5
Figure 2.12
(c) Biophoto Associates/Science Source
Characteristics of Lipids
• Contain C, H, O
• Contain a lower proportion of oxygen to carbon than do

carbohydrates
• Insoluble in water
• Examples: fats, oils, cholesterol, triglycerides,

phospholipids
Functions of Lipids
• Long term energy storage
• Insulates against heat loss
• Protective cushion for organs
• Cholesterol is part of the cell membrane structure
Types of Lipids
Saturated:
• single covalent bonds between carbon atoms
• Examples: beef, pork, whole milk, cheese, eggs
Unsaturated:
• one or more double covalent bonds between carbons
• Examples: olive oil, fish oil, sunflower oil
Triglycerides
Figure 2.13
Fatty Acids
Figure 2.14
Phospholipids
Figure 2.15
Characteristics of Proteins
• Contains C, H, O, N
• Amino acids are the building blocks
• 20 different naturally occurring amino acids
• Amino acids contain an amine (NH2) group and carboxyl

group
• Amino acids are not stored, so a daily supply is required
Linear Sequence of Amino Acids in a Protein
Figure 2.17a
Protein Folding
Figure 2.17(b) and (c)

Functions of Proteins
• Used to make skin, hair, nails, muscles
• Part of the hemoglobin molecule
• Act as enzymes
• Immune system functions
• Muscle contractions (actin and myosin)
• Part of the cell membrane
Protein Denaturation
• Protein denaturation occurs when the hydrogen bonds that

maintain shape of a protein are broken and the protein
becomes nonfunctional.
• Factors that can cause denaturation are: high
temperatures and/or improper pH
Enzymes
• Enzymes are organic catalysts that increase the rate at

which biochemical reactions proceed without the enzyme
being permanently changed.
• Enzymes work by lowering the energy of activation.
Enzyme Action
Figure 2.18
Nucleic Acids
• Composed of C, H, O, N, P
• Examples: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA

(ribonucleic acid)
• Nucleotides are the building blocks
• Nucleotides are composed of a nitrogen base, phosphate,

and 5-carbon sugar
Structure of DNA
Figure 2.19
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
• ATP is an especially important organic molecule found in all

living organisms.
• It consists of adenosine (the sugar ribose with the organic

base adenine) and three phosphate groups.
• ATP is often called the energy currency of cells because it

is capable of both storing and providing energy.
Structure of ATP
Figure 2.20
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Because learning changes everything.

• Matter: anything that occupies space and has mass

• Weight: gravitational force acting on object

• Proton: positive charged particle located inside the

• Atomic number: the number of protons in each atom

• Mass number: the number of protons and neutrons in

Chemical bonds occur when outermost electrons

Types of chemical bonds

Ion: a charged atom formed because of a donation or gain

• Example: Na+, Cl− Ionic bonding occurs when there is an

Covalent bonding occurs when atoms share one or more

Polar covalent bonds form when there is an unequal

Polar molecules have an asymmetrical electrical charge

Polar covalent bonded

• Example: water (H2O)

Weak charge attractions between separate molecules or

• Polar molecules, like water, have a positive end and a

When ionic compounds dissolve in water they dissociate

• Chemical reactions occur when there is a formation or

• Example: ADP + P → ATP

• Example: ATP → ADP + P

• Example: HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O

• Reversible reactions occur when the reaction can run in

CO2 + H2O ⇄ H+ + HCO3

• Equilibrium: when the rate of product formation equals

• Energy is the capacity to do work.

• Work is the moving of matter.

• Kinetic energy is energy in motion

• Potential energy is stored energy

An example of a reaction that releases energy is the

ATP → ADP + Pi + energy used by cells

The rate at which a chemical reaction proceeds is influenced

• concentration of the reactants

• Catalyst: increases the rate of a reaction without itself

Concentration of the reactants: within limits the higher the

Temperature: within limits, the higher the temperature the

Acid: a proton H+ donor

• Example: HCl (hydrochloric acid)

Base: a proton H+ acceptor

• Example: NaOH (sodium hydroxide)

• Inorganic chemistry deals with those substances that do

Oxygen (O2) is a small, nonpolar, inorganic molecule.

• Two oxygen atoms bound together by a double covalent

Water (H2O) is a polar molecule composed of two hydrogen

Water is essential to life because it performs the following

• Carbon’s ability to form covalent bonds with other atoms

• The four major groups of organic molecules essential to

• H:O is a 2:1 ratio

• Monosaccharides are the building blocks.

• Examples: glucose and fructose

• Example: glucose + fructose = sucrose

• Example: glucose + galactose = lactose

• Example: starch, grain, vegetables, glycogen

Important functions of carbohydrates in humans:

• When undigested carbohydrates provide bulk (fiber) in

Glycogen is the main storage form of glucose in humans.

Access the text alternative for slide images.

• Contain a lower proportion of oxygen to carbon than do

• Examples: fats, oils, cholesterol, triglycerides,

• Long term energy storage

• Insulates against heat loss

• Protective cushion for organs

• Cholesterol is part of the cell membrane structure