THERMODYNAMICS

AND
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

SLt Rosalin Padhi

70802-N
 CONTENTS
• Basics of thermodynamics
• Superconductivity
• Meissner effect
• Type I and Type II superconductors
• Thermo electric effect and its applications
• B-H Curve (Hysteresis)
• Applications of superconductors
 INTRODUCTION
• The study of thermodynamics is concerned with ways
energy is stored within a body and how energy
transformations, which involve heat and work, may
take place.
 INTRODUCTION
Approaches to studying thermodynamics:

• Macroscopic (Classical thermodynamics)study large number

of particles (molecules) that make up the substance in
question

• Microscopic (Statistical thermodynamics)concerned within

behavior of individual particles (molecules) study average
behavior of large groups of individual particles
 Applications of Thermodynamics

The human body

Air-conditioning Airplanes
systems

Car radiators Power plants Refrigeration systems

Thermodynamic Systems
•Thermodynamic System
• quantity of matter or a region of space
chosen for study
•Boundary
• real or imaginary layer that separates the
system from its surroundings
•Surroundings
• physical space outside the system boundary
• Types of Systems
• Closed
• Open
Types of Systems
Open Systems

An open system is one that

freely allows both energy and
matter to be transferred in an
out of a system.

For example: Boiling water without a lid.

Closed Systems

A closed system, on the other hand,

does not allow the exchange of
matter but allows energy to
transferred out side of the system.

• Heat transferred from the stove to the water

• Heat is also transferred to the surroundings
• Steam is not allowed to escape
Example of a closed system – a pressure cooker.
 Isolated Systems
This system is completely sealed.

• Neither matter nor heat can

transfer to or from the
surroundings.

Example – A thermo flask.

 Total Energy of a System
• Sum of all forms of energy (i.e., thermal, mechanical, kinetic,
potential, electrical, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear) that can exist in
a system
• For systems we typically deal with in this course, sum of internal,
kinetic, and potential energies

• E = U + KE + PE
• E = Total energy of system U = internal energy
• KE = kinetic energy = mV2/2 PE = potential energy = mgh
 System’s Internal Energy

• System’s Internal Energy = Sum of Microscopic Energies

1. Kinetic Energy (Molecular )
2. Potential Energy (Molecular )
3. Vibrational Kinetic Energy (Molecular )
 Properties
• Any characteristic of a system in equilibrium is called a property.
• Types of properties
• Extensive properties - vary directly with the size of the system
Examples: volume, mass, total energy
• Intensive properties - are independent of the size of the
system
Examples: temperature, pressure, color
• Extensive properties per unit mass are intensive properties.
specific volume v = Volume/Mass = V/m
density r = Mass/Volume = m/V
 State & Equilibrium
• State of a system
• system that is not undergoing any change
• all properties of system are known & are not changing
• if one property changes then the state of the system
changes
• Thermodynamic equilibrium
• “equilibrium” - state of balance
• All macroscopic properties are constant.(Temperature,
Pressure, Volume, Mass, n, etc.).
 Thermodynamics Process

• Isothermal Process
• Adiabatic Process
• Isobaric Process
• Isochoric Process
• Quasi-static Process
• Cyclic Process
 Thermodynamics Process

• Pressure and volume changes at a constant

• Isothermal Process
temperature.
• Adiabatic Process • Total amount of heat of the system does not
remain constant.
• Isobaric Process
• Isochoric Process • PV=Constant
• P1V1 = P2V2 = Constant
• Quasi-static Process
• Cyclic Process
 Thermodynamics Process
• When pressure, volume and temperature changes of a system
without any heat entering or leaving the system is called adiabatic
change.
• Isothermal Process • Total heat of the system, undergoing an adiabatic change always
• Adiabatic Process remains constant.
Example:
• Isobaric Process Consider some gas contained in an insulating barrel fitted with an air
tight piston. On compressing the gas, heat is liberated. This liberated
• Isochoric Process heat cannot move out due to the insulation of the barrel, resulting in
a rise of temperature. On expanding the gas, heat is absorbed. This
• Quasi-static Process results in a fall of temperature. P-V
• Isentropic process
= Constant
=
Here Cp and Cv are the molar specific heat capacities of the gas at
constant pressure and at constant volume respectively.
 Thermodynamics Process
• The process in which change in volume and temperature of a gas
take place at a constant pressure is called an isobaric process.
• Isothermal Process
• Adiabatic Process
• Isobaric Process
• Isochoric Process
• Quasi-static Process
• Isentropic process
 Thermodynamics Process
• The process in which changes in pressure and temperature take
place in such a way that the volume of the system remains constant,
• Isothermal Process is called isochoric process.
• Adiabatic Process
• Isobaric Process
• Isochoric Process
• Quasi-static Process
• Isentropic process
 Thermodynamics Process

• Isothermal Process
• Adiabatic Process • The process in which change in any of the
• Isobaric Process
parameters take place at such a slow speed that
the values of P,V, and T can be taken to be,
• Isochoric Process practically, constant, is called a quasi-static
• Quasi-static Process process.
• Isentropic process
 Thermodynamics Process
• An isentropic process is a thermodynamic process, in
• Isothermal Process which the entropy of the fluid or gas remains constant. It
means the isentropic process is a special case of
• Adiabatic Process an adiabatic process in which there is no transfer of heat
• Isobaric Process or matter. It is a reversible adiabatic process.
An isentropic process can also be called a constant
• Isochoric Process entropy process.
• Quasi-static Process
• Isentropic process

 Carnot cycle
Thermodynamic Processes and First Law
 SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
• Superconductivity is the ability of certain materials
to conduct electric current with practically zero
resistance.

• The critical temperature for superconductors is

the temperature at which the electrical resistivity
of a metal drops to zero

• If mercury is cooled below 4.1 K, it loses all electric

resistance.
 MEISSNER EFFECT

When a material makes the transition from the normal to

superconducting state, it actively excludes magnetic fields
from its interior; this is called the Meissner effect.
MEISSNER EFFECT
 TYPE-I SUPERCONDUCTORS
• There are thirty pure metals which exhibit zero resistivity at low
temperatures and have the property of excluding magnetic fields from
the interior of the superconductor (Meissner effect). They are called
Type I superconductors.
Metals Critical Temperature
In 3.408
Sn 3.722
Hg 4.153
Ta 4.47
La 6.00
Pb 7.193
 TYPE-II SUPERCONDUCTORS
• Superconductors made from alloys are called Type II superconductors.
Besides being mechanically harder than Type I superconductors, they
exhibit much higher critical magnetic fields. Type II superconductors
such as niobium-titanium (NbTi) are used in the construction of high
field superconducting magnets.
Critical
Material
Field (T)
NbTi 15
PbMoS 6.0
V3Ga 2.1
NbN 1.5
V3Si 2.35
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TYPE-I AND
TYPE-II SUPERCONDUCTORS
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TYPE-I AND
TYPE-II SUPERCONDUCTORS
 Thermo-Electric Effect
• Thermo­electric is the phenomenon in which the heat energy is converted
into electric energy or vice-versa i.e.

• Heat energy ⇋ Electric energy.

• Joules heating effect is generally irreversible in nature, There are thermo­

electric phenomena which are reversible.

• In the order of their discovery, these are known as Seebeck effect, Peltier
effect and Thomson effect.
 Thermo-Electric Effect

• Seebeck effect
• Peltier effect
• Thomson effect
 Seebeck effect
when two dissimilar metals are joined so as to form
a closed circuit

A difference of temperature is maintained between

their junctions

emf is developed and hence the current flows

through the circuit

The emf so produced is known as thermo-electric

emf
 Seebeck
effect
• The arrangement of joining two dissimilar metals is called
thermo-couple.

• The magnitude of thermo-electric emf depends upon the nature

of two metals and on the temperature difference of their
junctions.

• Example: Bi, Ni, Co, Pt, Cu, Mn, Hg, Sn, Au, Ag, Zn, Cd, Fe, As, Sb,
Te, etc
 Peltier effect

When a current is passed through a thermo­couple whose two

junctions are kept at same temperature

Then one of the junction is heated while other is cooled

Showing that heat energy is being liberated at one junction and

absorbed at the other junction

A difference of temperature is developed between the two junctions

 Thomson effect

When a temperature gradient is maintained between the different

parts of the same metal

Due to the temperature gradient, there exists a variation of

potential along the metal

emf is developed in the metal due to the temperature gradient.

 Thomson effect

• As heat is either absorbed or-evolved when current passes between

two points having a difference of potential, therefore, the passage of
electric current through such a metal results in an absorption or
evolution of heat in the body of the metal
THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
• The first law of thermodynamics, also known as the conservation
of energy principle,
• Provides a sound basis for studying the relationships among the
various forms of energy and their interactions.

“First law of thermodynamics states

that energy can be neither created nor destroyed during a process; it
can
only change forms”

• A major consequence of the first law is the existence and the

definition of the property total energy E.
• It simply states that the change in the total energy during an
adiabatic process must be equal to the net work done.
 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

• In the absence of any work interactions, the energy

change of a system is equal to the net heat transfer.

• The work (e.g., electrical) done on an adiabatic

system is equal to the increase in the energy of
the system.
 THE FIRST LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS

The work (shaft) done

on an adiabatic
ENERGY BALANCE

- =
system is equal to the
increase in the Total energy Total energy Change in the total
energy of the system. entering the system leaving the system energy of the system

𝐸𝑖𝑛− 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡=∆ 𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Energy Change of a System Esystem

𝑬𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍− 𝑬𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒂𝒍=∆ 𝑬𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎

• For simple compressible systems), the change in the
total energy of a system during a process is the sum of
the changes in its internal, kinetic, and potential
energies.

∆ 𝑼 +∆ 𝑲𝑬+∆ 𝑷𝑬=∆ 𝑬
stationary systems

=
 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Energy Change of a System Esystem
A rigid tank contains a hot fluid that is cooled while being
stirred by a paddle wheel. Initially, the internal energy of the
fluid is 800 kJ. During the cooling process, the fluid loses 500
kJ of heat, and the paddle wheel does 100 kJ of work on the
fluid. Determine the final internal energy of the fluid. Neglect
the energy stored in the paddle wheel.

Sol: The tank is stationary and thus the kinetic and potential
energy changes are zero,

=
THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Energy is a conserved property, and no process is known to have

taken place in violation of the first law of thermodynamics.

Satisfying the first law alone does not ensure that the process will
actually take place.

It is common experience that a cup of hot coffee left in a cooler

room eventually cools off , This process satisfies the first law of
thermodynamics since the amount of energy lost by the coffee is
equal to the amount gained by the surrounding air.

Now let us consider the reverse process the hot coffee getting
even hotter in a cooler room as a result of heat transfer from the
room air. (As it also obey 1st Law)

NO
THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
It is clear from these arguments that processes
proceed in a certain direction and not in the reverse
direction.
The first law places no restriction on the direction of
a process and hence introduce another principle.
second law of thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics put restrictions
upon the direction of heat transfer and achievable
efficiencies of heat engines.
THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

• The second law of thermodynamics states that

any spontaneously occurring process will always
lead to an increase in the entropy (S) of the
universe.
S>0
S change in entropy of universe
• Entropy is a measure of the randomness of the
system or it is the measure of energy within an
isolated system.
 THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Different Statements of The Law
1.Kelvin- Plank Statement
2.Clausius Statemen
• It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to
receive heat from a single reservoir and produce a net
amount of work.
• No heat engine can have a thermal efficiency of 100
percent.

A heat engine that violates the

Kelvin–Planck statement of the
second law.
 THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Different Statements of The Law
1.Kelvin- Plank Statement
2.Clausius Statemen • It is impossible to construct a device that operates
in a cycle and produces no effect other than the
transfer of heat from a lower-temperature body to a
higher temperature body.

Means, Unless the compressor is driven by an external

source, the refrigerator won’t be able to operate.
THANK YOU