Communicative English

Module 1- Speech Skills

What is Communication?
● It is a process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a common
system of symbols, signs, or behaviour 
(Merriam- Webster)

● Communication is the exchange of meanings between individuals through a common system of

symbols.
(Britannica)

● The word ‘communication’ has been derived from the Latin words:
“communis” (means common) and “communicare” (to share)

Thus the word communication means sharing of ideas in common.

Features of Communication
⮚ Two-way process
⮚ Circular flow
⮚ Goal oriented 
⮚ Persuasive
⮚ Involves at least two people
Types of Communication
1) Interpersonal and Intrapersonal Communication:
Interpersonal communication is the process of exchange of information, ideas and feelings between two or
more people through verbal or non-verbal methods. It often includes face-to-face exchange of information, in
a form of voice, facial expressions, body language and gestures.

Intrapersonal communication can be defined as communication with one's self, and that may include self-
talk, acts of imagination and visualisation, and even recall and memory.

2) Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication:

Verbal communication involves the use of words or speech or auditory language to express emotions or
thoughts or exchange information.

Non-verbal communication involves the use of visual or non-verbal cues such as facial expressions, eye or
body movements, gestures, and many more without speaking.
3) Written and Oral Communication:

Oral Communication- Exchange of ideas, information and message through spoken words is Oral
Communication.

Written Communication- Interchange of message, opinions and information in written or printed form is
Written Communication.

4) Formal and Informal Communication:

Formal communication- Formal communication is one that passes through predefined channels of
communication throughout the organization.

Informal communication- On the contrary, Informal communication refers to the form of communication
which flows in every direction, i.e. it moves freely in the organization.
Barriers to Communication
1. Perceptual Barriers: The problem with communicating with others is that we all see the world
differently.
2. Gender Barriers: Gender barriers to communication can incite problems at home and in the workplace.
Societal stereotypes, assumed gender roles, and interpersonal differences can contribute to a
communication gap between the sexes.
3. Language Barriers: Our language may present barriers to others who are not familiar with our
expressions, buzz-words and jargon.
4. Cultural Barriers: the difference in upbringing and culture adds to lack of proper understanding
5. Physical Barriers: Closed office doors, barrier screens, and separate areas for people of different status
6. Psychological/ Emotional Barriers: comprised mainly of fear, mistrust and suspicion.As a result, many
people hold back from communicating their thoughts and feelings to others.
7. Physiological Barriers: related to the limitations of human body (eyesight, ear impediments, lisps and
stammers) and human mind (memory and attention)
Communicative English
Communicative English is an approach to language teaching in which a student learns from real life
interaction, which can help to reinforce the value of their studies.Knowing how to speak fluently, one on
one, with another English speaker is vitally important for various reasons! But, you need to have the
necessary communication skills in order to reach this level. When it comes to communicative English, there
are many different techniques that can help to give you the edge over other learners and native speakers in
your conversations; ensuring a great first impression every time

What Is The Communicative Approach?

The Communicative Approach is an idea that to learn English successfully, you have to communicate
in the language, in meaningful situations, in order to see the value of your work. The communicative
approach is a tried and test method for helping a student to acquire valuable communicative English
skills, which they see true value in.
When a student is involved with real life communication, which is also meaningful to them, they see
value in their work. This can help a student to develop a natural approach to language learning and
vocabulary acquisition moving forward, outside of the classroom.
The communicative approach is not just limited to real life verbal communication. It is an approach
to language learning in general. By adopting the communicative approach in your English studies,
you will be able to improve on your fluency, enabling you to be more confident when interacting in
English.
The Communicative Approach is not new, it is said to have originated in Britain in the 1960s. So,
with more than 50 years of usage as a tried and tested approach to language learning, the
Communicative Approach is a proven success.
Applications of Communicative Approach
Strengthening your communication skills in English is necessary, as it is a powerful tool that can be used for
business, travel or simply to have a conversation in a different country.
By improving on your communicative English, you are enabling yourself to not only hold a conversation in
your target language, but you are also developing the required skills to go forth and develop a natural
approach to language learning and vocabulary acquisition moving forward, on your own, whether it be using
the language for advancing in a career or for cracking Language Competency programs like the IELTS or
TOEFL.

A good command over English as a Communicative language is important because:

● English is the language of international communication.
● Learning English increases communicative competence of a person.
● It opens new opportunities.
● It enhances scope for higher studies.
● It is the language of official correspondence.
● English is the top language on internet.
● It is the medium of instruction in various institutes around the globe.
Pluricentric English
English is a pluricentric language, which means that no one national authority sets the standard for use of the
language.English has ceased to be an "English language" in the sense of belonging only to people who are
ethnically English.Use of English is growing country-by-country internally and for international communication.

As decolonisation proceeded throughout the British Empire in the 1950s and 1960s, former colonies often did
not reject English but rather continued to use it as independent countries setting their own language policies.For
example, the view of the English language among many Indians has gone from associating it with colonialism to
associating it with economic progress, and English continues to be an official language of India.

English is also widely used in media and literature, and the number of English language books published
annually in India is the third largest in the world after the US and UK.However English is rarely spoken as a first
language, numbering only around a couple hundred-thousand people, and less than 5% of the population speak
fluent English in India. Combining native and non-native speakers, India now has more people who speak or
understand English than any other country in the world.
Global English
Modern English, sometimes described as the first global lingua franca (common language for
communication) , is also regarded as the first world language English is the world's most widely used language
in newspaper publishing, book publishing, international telecommunications, scientific publishing,
international trade, mass entertainment, and diplomacy.

English is, by international treaty, the basis for the required controlled natural languages, used as
international languages of seafaring and aviation.
By the time of the foundation of the United Nations at the end of World War II, English had become pre-
eminent and is now the main worldwide language of diplomacy and international relations.Although in most
countries English is not an official language, it is currently the language most often taught as a
foreign language

A working knowledge of English has become a requirement in a number of occupations and professions such
as medicine and computing. English has become so important in scientific publishing. The increased use of the
English language globally has had an effect on other languages, leading to some English words being
assimilated into the vocabularies of other languages.
 Three Circles of English Speaking Countries
Braj Kachru (Indian linguist) distinguishes countries where English is spoken with a three circles model. In his
model,

● "inner circle" countries have large communities of native speakers of English, include Britain, the
United States, Australia, Canada, Ireland, and New Zealand. English here is ENL (native language) or
EMT (mother tongue).
● "outer circle" countries have small communities of native speakers of English but widespread use of
English as a second language in education or broadcasting or for local official purposes, Philippines,
Jamaica,India, Pakistan, Singapore, Malaysia and Nigeria with a much smaller proportion of native
speakers of English but much use of English as a second language for education, government, or
domestic business, and its routine use for school instruction and official interactions with the
government. This is now a much larger circle than the inner circle. English here is ESL (Second
language)
● "expanding circle" countries are countries where many people learn English as a foreign
language.Poland, China, Brazil, Germany, Japan, Indonesia, Egypt etc. English here is EFL (forgein
language).
What is Standard English?
Standard English (S.E.) refers to whatever form of the English language is accepted as a national norm in an
Anglophone country. It encompasses grammar, vocabulary, and spelling. There is no official or central
regulating body defining S.E and Standard English is recognized as not being a class or regional dialect. It is
an educated form of English used for official purposes such as administration, education and information.

In the British Isles, particularly in England and Wales, S.E. is often associated with: the "Received
Pronunciation" accent (there are several variants of the accent) and UKSE (United Kingdom Standard
English), which refers to grammar and vocabulary.

In the United States it is generally associated with the "General American" accent.
In Australia with General Australian. In India, the standard English variety is called Indian English (IE).
We distinguish the British standard (R.P) and the American standard or (G.A). There are differences between
these two standards mainly in the field of lexis (vocabulary) and to a limited extent also in grammar and
spelling.
Pronunciation
"Pronunciation" refers to the way in which we make the sound of words.

To pronounce words, we push air from our lungs up through our throat and vocal chords, through our mouth,
past our tongue and out between our teeth and lips. (Sometimes air also travels through our nose.) To change
the sound that we are making, we mainly use the muscles of our mouth, tongue and lips to control the shape
of our mouth and the flow of air. If we can control the shape of our mouth and the flow of air correctly, then
our pronunciation is clearer and other people understand us more easily.

Speakers of different languages tend to develop different muscles of the mouth for pronunciation. When we
speak a foreign language, our muscles may not be well developed for that language, and we will find
pronunciation more difficult. By practising the foreign language pronunciation, our muscles develop and
pronunciation improves.
As well as creating correct vowel and consonant sounds using the muscles of our mouth, tongue and lips,
there are other important aspects of pronunciation, including:

● word stress - emphasis on certain syllables in a word

● sentence stress - emphasis on certain words in a sentence
● linking - joining certain words together
● intonation - the rise and fall of our voice as we speak

A word can be spoken in different ways by various individuals or groups, depending on

many factors, such as:

● the duration of the cultural exposure of their childhood​

● the location of their current residence ​
● speech or voice disorders ​
● their ethnic group​
● their social class​
● their education​
Received Pronunciation (RP)
Received Pronunciation /RP- Also referred to as the Queen's/King's English or Oxford English, is the accent
traditionally regarded as the standard for British English.

RP is an accent- so the study of RP is concerned only with matters of pronunciation

Other areas relevant to the study of language standards such as vocabulary, grammar and style are not
considered.

The introduction of the term Received Pronunciation is usually credited to the British phonetician Daniel
Jones (English Pronouncing Dictionary, 1917 )
RP or any other accent variation of a language becomes part of the Standard English variety when it is
supported institutions such as
➢ government recognition or designation
➢ formal presentation in schooling as the "correct" form of a language
➢ informal monitoring and policing of everyday usage
➢ published grammars, dictionaries, and textbooks that set forth a normative spoken and written form
➢ an extensive formal literature that employs that variety (prose, poetry, non-fiction, etc.).

There are also nonstandard accents of languages that also has a complete grammar and vocabulary, but is
usually not the beneficiary of institutional support.
Few examples of a nonstandard English are : Southern American English, Western Australian English,
New York English, New England English, Mid-Atlantic American or Philadelphia / Baltimore English,
Scouse, Brummie, Cockney, and Tyke.
Inconsistencies in the English Alphabet
Spelling, or orthography, does not consistently represent the sounds of language • Some problems with
ordinary spelling: –
1. The same sound may be represented by many letters or combination of letters:
he people key believe seize machine Caesar seas see amoeba
2. The same letter may represent a variety of sounds:
father village badly made many
3. A combination of letters may represent a single sound
shoot character either physics rough coat deal
4. A single letter may represent a combination of sounds
xerox

5. Some letters in a word may not be pronounced at all

autumn resign pterodactyl lamb corps write psychology knot

6. There may be no letter to represent a sound that occurs in a word

cute use
 Phonetic Alphabet
Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies how humans produce and perceive sounds.The science of
phonetics aims to describe all the sounds of all the world’s languages and the linguists who specialize in
phonetics ie study the physical properties of speech are Phoneticians.

In 1888 the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) was invented in order to have a system in which there was
a one to-one correspondence between each sound in language and each phonetic symbol
International Phonetic Association in the late 19th century standardized a representation of the sounds of
spoken language.

The IPA is designed to represent only those qualities of speech that are part of oral language which cannot be
discerned easily by a non native speaker. Someone who knows the IPA knows how to pronounce any word in
any language.The symbols are based largely on the Roman alphabet.

The English language uses 44 symbols (or phonemes) from the IPA (12 pure vowels, 8 diphthongs and 24
consonants) to represent all the sounds produced in the english language in place of the 26 symbols ( 5 vowels
and 21 consonants) in the English Alphabet. This system of 44 phonetic alphabets is called the English
Phonetic Alphabet.
 Pure Vowels
Or
Monophthongs
Diphthongs
Consonants
English IPA Chart
Sample Phonetic Transcriptions
 Read the following
1. Option
Option /ˈɒpʃ(ə)n/ 9. Ultimate /ʌltɪmət/
2. Apple
Apple /ˈæp(ə)l/ 10. Deviation /diːviˈeɪʃ(ə)n/
3.
3. Watch
Watch /wɒtʃ/ 11. Yesterday /ˈjestə(r)deɪ/
4.
4. Metropolitan
Metropolitan /metrəˈpɒlɪt(ə)n/ 12. Toy /tɔɪ/
5.
5. Mango
Mango /ˈmæŋɡəʊ/ 13. Shoebox /ˈʃuːˌbɒks/
6.
6. Strength
Strength /streŋθ/ 14. Juice /dʒuːs/
7. Ring
7. Ring /rɪŋ/ 15. Beautiful /ˈbjuːtəf(ə)l/
8. Measurement
8. Measurement /ˈmeʒə(r)mənt/ 16. Realization /rɪəlaɪˈzeɪʃ(ə)n/
17. Also /ˈɔːlsəʊ/ 25. Between /bɪˈtwiːn/
18. Business /ˈbɪznəs/ 26. Wonderful /ˈwʌndə(r)f(ə)l/
19. About /əˈbaʊt/ 27. Once /wʌns/
20. Different /ˈdɪfrənt/ 28. Revolution /revəˈluːʃ(ə)n/
21. Communication /kəmjuːnɪˈkeɪʃ(ə)n/ /səkˈses/
29. Success
22. Their /ðeə(r)/ /ˈfəʊtəɡrɑːf/
30. Photograph
23. Writing /ˈraɪtɪŋ/ /kənˈdɪʃ(ə)n/
31. Condition
/ˈfɔː(r)wə(r)d/ /juːˈtens(ə)l/
24. Forward 32. Utensil
 Identify the words from their Phonetic Script
1. /ˈtaɪə(r)/ 11. /beə(r)/ 21. /kætʃ/
2. /teə(r)/ 12. /ˈdʒʌɡ(ə)l/ 22. /prɪˈpeə(r)/
3. /tɪə(r)/ 13. /ˈɔː(r)ɡənaɪz/ 23. /ˈveɪkənsi/
4. /ˈdʒʌstɪs/ 14. /ˈbʌb(ə)l/ 24. /ʌndə(r)ˈstænd/
5. /bluː/ 15. /əˈbʌv/ 25. /bɔː(r)n/
6. /ˈberi/ 16. /ˈwʌndə(r)/ 26. /rɪəˈlɪstɪk/
7. /bɜː(r)st/ 17. /rɪst/ 27. /ˈtelɪfəʊn/
8. /buːst/ 18. /ˈθʌndə(r)/ 28. /jel/
9. /biːst/ 19. /ˈðeə(r)fɔː(r)/ 29. /jæm/
10. /bɪə(r)d/ 20. /haʊˈevə(r)/ 30. /ˈpærəʃuːt/
 Answers

1. Tire 11. Bear 21. Catch

2. Tear 12. Juggle 22. Prepare
3. Tier /Tear 13. Organize 23. Vacancy
4. Justice 14. Bubble 24. Understand
5. Blue 15. Above 25. Born
6. Berry 16. Wonder 26. Realistic
7. Burst 17. Wrist 27. Telephone
18. Thunder 28. Yell
8. Boost
19. Therefore 29. Yam
9. Beast
20. However 30. Parachute
10. Beard
 Speech Chunks
One essential part of speaking well is to break your speech into short chunks—usually
a few words— and pausing briefly after each one.
As an English learner, you may focus too much on your grammar or vocabulary and
forget about pausing naturally. There are two main mistakes people make with
chunking.
The first mistake is pausing too much. If you pause too much, it means that you
haven't practiced speaking enough.

It. Sounds. Like. This. Or it. Sounds like. This it. Is. Of Course. Not
very clear.

(Correctly spoken, that would be, "It sounds like this. Or, it sounds like this. It is, of
course, not very clear.")
The second mistake is pausing too little. If you speak too quickly, it means you are not
thinking about the listener. It's very hard to understand when people speak like that.
 Not pausing enough so you keep speaking and sounding as if you
are going to continue and you never stop is not easy to understand
and the sentence gets harder and harder to understand like this
one.

(Correctly spoken, that might be, "Not pausing enough—if you keep speaking as if you
are going to continue—is not easy to understand. The sentence gets harder and harder
to understand, like this one.")
Question: Try reading it out loud. Where would you pause?

/ There was a small, square table/ bolted to the floor / and two metal
chairs, / one on either side. //
The first chunk is a little longer, and the next three are relatively short. This makes a
pleasing rhythm. Also there was no pause after every comma. In fact, commas do not
always mean you have to pause, and conversely, when you read aloud you will need to
pause even in places where there is no comma. So limit your speaking to short chunks
and use suitable pauses to increase clarity of speech.
Word Stress, Connected
Speech, Intonation
Syllable
A syllable is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds. They are often considered the
phonological "building blocks" of words.

Syllables are one of the smallest convenient unit of speech. In other words it is a single unit of speech,
either a whole word or one of the parts into which a word can be separated, usually containing a vowel.

All the words in English have one or more syllables.

● A word made up of a single syllable is called a monosyllable

● A word made up of two syllables is called a disyllable.
● A word with three syllables is called a trisyllable.
● A word with more than three syllables is a polysyllable.

Let us look at a few examples.

Word Syllable breaking Phonetic Transcription

Surprise Sur-prise /səˈpraɪz/

Gangster Gang-ster /ˈɡæŋ.stər/

Cat Cat /kæt/

Independence In-de-pen-dence /ˌɪndɪˈpendəns/

Police Po-lice /pəˈliːs/

Semester Se-mes-ter /səˈmestə(r)/

Monosyllabic Words Disyllabic Words Trisyllabic Words Polysyllabic Words

Mug Packet Constable Examination

Seat Doctor Balancing Disadvantage

Man Father Summary Immortality

Went Student Furniture Diplomatically

Click Building Improvement Disadvantage

Scream Racket Gathering Disagreement

Rose Moral Government Intelligible

Syllabic Structure
The structure of a syllable in English is (C-V-C)
where C - Consonant and V -Vowel represented wherever necessary.

Examples
● I - /ai/ - V (Only a vowel)
● oh! - /əʊ/ - V (Only a vowel)
● all - /ɔːl/ - VC (Vowel and Consonant)
● bee - /bi:/ - CV (Consonant and Vowel)
● go - /ɡəʊ/ - CV (Consonant and Vowel)
● cat - / kæt/ - CVC (Consonant+Vowel+Consonant)
● room- /ru:m/ - CVC
● seat- /si:t/ - CVC
Identify the Syllable structure for the following:
c ➔ CCVCVCV
➔ CVCVCCV
➔ CVCVCV
➔ CVCCVCV
➔ CVCCCVC
➔ CCVCVCCVCC
➔ CVCCVCC
➔ CVCCVCVCC
➔ CVCVCVCV
Identify the number of syllables for the following
and workout the syllabic structure:
➔ 1 CVCC
➔ 2 CVCVCCC
➔ 2 CVCCV
➔ 3 VCCVCVC
Structure of CVC
A syllable CVC has three parts: onset, nucleus, and coda.

The onset and the coda are consonants or consonant clusters (a group of consonants), that
appear at the beginning and the end of a (single) syllable respectively.

The nucleus forms the core of the syllable; it is either a pure vowel, or a combination of vowel
sounds (diphthong).

A syllable does not necessarily need to have an onset or a coda - depending on the structure -
but a nucleus is always present.

Example:
1. In the monosyllabic word bet, the phoneme /b/ is onset, /e/ is nucleus, and /t/ is coda.
2. In the monosyllabic word sudden, /s/ is onset, /ʌ/ is nucleus and /dn/ is the coda cluster.
3. In the monosyllabic word stir, /st/ is onset cluster, /3:/ is nucleus and the coda is absent.
4. In the monosyllabic word oh, /əʊ/ is the nucleus but both onset and coda are absent.
Word Stress
In spoken English, not all words are pronounced with equal force. Depending on the context and
importance, some words are given more importance than others in speech. This feature of speech
superimposed on words for effective communication are called suprasegmental features of prosodic
features.

They include :
1. Stress
2. Intonation
3. Tone
4. Length

When words are pronounced a kind of force or strength may given to a part of a word. This special
attention or force given to a part of a word is called Word Stress. In other words Word stress, also
known as Word Accent is the emphasis we place in a specific syllable of a word when pronouncing it.
When we stress on part of a word we speak that part,
• Louder
• Longer
• At a higher pitch
How do you speak these words?

Happy - HAppy Father - FAther Teacher - TEAcher Captain – CAPtain

Relax-re-LAX Receive- Re-CEIVE Direct- di-RECT Among- a-MONG

This means that one part of a certain word is said louder and longer than other parts of the same word.
In one words, we accentuate ONE syllable.

The syllable which is pronounced with greater force is called the stressed syllable. It is also known
as the accented syllable.

● A word can only have one stress.

● In a very long word you can have a secondary stress but it is always a much smaller stress.
● Only vowels are stressed, not consonants.
● A single-syllable word does not carry word stress.
Representation of the accented syllables in IPA.

Happy – HAppy - /ˈhæpi/ Father – FAther - /ˈfɑːðə(r)/

Teacher – TEAcher - /ˈtiːtʃə(r)/ Captain – CAPtain - /ˈkæptɪn/

Identify the accented syllable of the following words

1. Because /bɪ’kɒz/
2. Beware /bɪ’weə(r)/
3. Fellow /’feləʊ/
4. Manager /’mænɪdʒə(r)/
5. Carpenter /’kɑː(r)pɪntə(r)/
6. Doctor /’dɒktə(r)/
7. Keyboard /’kiːˌbɔː(r)d/
8. Honest /’ɒnɪst/
9. Market /’mɑː(r)kɪt/
10. Highway /’haɪweɪ/
Rules of Stress
For English native speakers stress is completely natural. As a student of English as a second language it
should be learned through constant practice by learning the rules.

1) Most disyllabic Nouns and Adjectives stress on first syllable.

Examples :
Nouns : SAMples PRESent PASSport CHIna TAble
Adjectives : SLENder CLEVer HAPpy LONely RAIny

2) Most disyllabic Verbs and Prepositions stress on the second syllable.

Examples:
Verbs : re-LAX re-CEIVE di-RECT deCIDE beGIN
Prepositions : aMONG beHIND aRound wiTHIN uPON
3) Stress shift according to function.
There are some disyllabic words in English which are stressed on the first syllable when they are
nouns or adjectives. But the accent is shifted to the second syllable when these are verbs.

Examples:

● subject
Noun: SUBject “What subjects do you study?”
Verb: subJECT “She was subjected to harsh criticism.”
● project
Noun: PROject “They’re working on a project.”
Verb: proJECT “He projects himself well.”
● refuse
Noun: REfuse “The refuse collectors are on strike.”
Verb: reFUSE “He refused permission.”
● object
Noun: OBject “He treats her like an object.”
Verb: obJECT “She objected to the proposals.”
● increase
Noun: INcrease “There’s been an increase in the number of students.”
Verb: inCREASE “Numbers are increasing.”
● import
Noun: IMport “This is a cheap import.”
Verb: imPORT “They import their oil from the UK.”
● discount
Noun: DIScount “Is there a discount on this?”
Verb: disCOUNT “They discounted the theories.”
● permit
Noun: PERmit “Do you need a permit to fish here?”
Verb: perMIT “They won’t permit her to leave the country.”
● update
Noun: UPdate “We’ve got some updates for you.”
Verb: upDATE “We’re updating our files.”
● conduct
Noun: CONduct “The conduct of the student was unacceptable.”
Verb: conDUCT “They’re conducting an enquiry.”
4) Compound Words

a. Compound nouns are stressed at the first part:

BLACKbird GREENhouse GRANDfather EARTHquake

b. Compound Verbs are stressed at the second part:

underSTAND overFLOW kickSTART babySIT

c. Compound Adjectives are stressed at the second part:

bad-TEMpered old-FASHioned good-LOOKing well-KNOWN

d. Compound words with -ever, -self, -selves are stressed at the second part:
howEVER whatEVER herSELF themSELVES
Connected Speech
Connected speech is spoken language in a continuous sequence, as in normal conversation. It
is also called connected discourse. There is often a significant difference between the way
words are pronounced in isolation and the way they are pronounced in the context of
connected speech. In connected speech, words or syllables are clipped, phrases are run
together, and words are stressed differently than they would be in writing.

Features of connected speech

– Elision (deleting a sound)
– Word linking (Catenation)
– Weak forms
1. Elision
One of the characteristics of connected speech is the deletion or clipping of sounds that occurs when
words run together. This will make the language faster.

There can be vowel elision and consonant elision.

– Tonight - /tnaɪt/
– Eight tins - /eɪtɪns/
– Not alone - /nɒtləʊn/
– Father and Mother - / fɑːðərn mʌðə/
– Last time - /la:s taɪm/
– Hasn’t she - /hæznʃɪ:/
2. Catenation
Catenation or Word linking refers to the linking of the last sound of a word to the first sound of
another word.
For example, ‘an apple’ becomes /ænæpl/ (anapple in speech).
• A name - /əneɪm/
• Address or a dress - /ədres/
• Play track, plate rack - /pleɪtræk/

Linking /r/

Some native English speakers who don’t pronounce the final ‘r’ will add it when the next word begins
with a vowel.
• Four eggs - /fɒ:regz/
• Your eyes - /jɒ:raɪz/
• For ever - /fɒ:revə/
3. Weak Forms
In the spoken English language, where stress and rhythm patterns play a major role in effective
communication, the vowel quality of certain words get reduced, ie the vowel sounds in these words turn weak
or get swallowed in connected speech in contrast to their strong form spoken in isolation.

The word classes that regularly undergo this change from strong to weak forms in connected speech are

● Articles
● Auxiliary Verbs
● Prepositions
● Conjunctions
● Pronouns
Intonation
Intonation is the variation in spoken pitch used for a range of functions such as

● indicating the attitudes and emotions of the speaker(surprise, anger, sadness etc)
● signalling the difference between statements and questions, and between different types of questions.
● focusing attention on important elements of the spoken message.
● helping to regulate conversational interaction.

International Phonetic Alphabet offers two intonation marks:

Rising[↗︎] and Falling [↘︎], respectively.
These may be written as part of a syllable, or separated with a space when they have a broader scope:
In many languages, including English, intonation serves a grammatical function, distinguishing one type of
phrase or sentence from another.
● “Your name is John,” beginning with a medium pitch and ending with a lower one (falling intonation),
is a simple assertion.
● “Your name is John?”, with a rising intonation (high final pitch), indicates a question.
Words like OKAY, GREAT, FINE are easy examples to understand the importance of
Intonation in Communication.
Intonation Patterns

● Rising Intonation means the pitch of the voice rises over time.

● Falling Intonation means that the pitch falls with time.

● Dipping or Fall-rise Intonation falls and then rises.

● Peaking or Rise-fall Intonation rises and then falls.

1. Falling Intonation (➘)
(The pitch of the voice falls at the end of the sentence.)

Falling intonation is the most common intonation pattern in English. It is commonly found in statements,
commands, wh-questions (information questions), confirmatory question tags and exclamations.

● Statements ● Commands

○ Nice to meet ↘you. ○ Write your name ↘here.

○ I’ll be back in a ↘minute.
○ She doesn’t live here ↘anymore.
○ Dad wants to change his ↘car.
○ Here is the weather ↘forecast.
○ Cloudy weather is expected at the end of the ↘week.
○ We should work together more ↘often.
○ I'm going for a walk in the ↘park.
○ Show me what you’ve ↘written.
○ Leave it on the ↘desk.
○ Take that picture ↘ down.
○ Throw that ↘out.
○ Put your books on the ↘table.
○ Take your hands out of your ↘pockets.
● Wh- questions (requesting information.)
(questions beginning with 'who', 'what',
'why', 'where', 'when', 'which', and 'how')
○ What country do you come ↘from?
○ Where do you ↘work?
○ Which of them do you ↘prefer?
○ When does the shop ↘open?
○ How many books have you ↘bought?
○ Which coat is ↘yours?
○ Whose bag is ↘this?
● Questions Tags that are statements requesting
confirmation rather than questions.
Not all tag questions are really questions.
Some of them merely ask for confirmation or invite
agreement, in which case we use a falling tone at the end.
○ He thinks he’s so clever, doesn’t ↘he?
○ She's such a nuisance, isn't ↘she?
○ I failed the test because I didn't revise, did ↘ I?
○ It doesn't seem to bother him much, does ↘ it?

● Exclamations
○ How nice of ↘ you!
○ That's just what I ↘need!
○ You don't ↘ say!
○ What a beautiful ↘ voice!
○ That's a ↘surprise!

(Note change in pitch in mother tongue influence)

Rising Intonation (➚)
(The pitch of the voice rises at the end of a sentence.)

Rising intonation invites the speaker to continue talking. It is normally used with yes/no questions, and question
tags that are real questions.

● Yes/no Questions ● Questions tags that show uncertainty

(Questions that can be answered by 'yes' or 'no'.)
○ Do you like your new ➚teacher?
○ Have you finished ➚already?
○ May I borrow your ➚dictionary?
○ Do you have any ➚magazines?
○ Do you sell ➚stamps?
and require an answer (real questions).
○ We've met already, ➚haven't we?
○ You like fish, ➚don't you?
○ You're a new student ➚aren't you?
○ The view is beautiful, ➚isn't it?

We sometimes use a combination of rising and falling intonation in the same sentence.
The combination is called Rise-Fall or Fall-Rise intonation.
Rise-Fall Intonation (➚➘)
(The intonation rises and then falls.)

We use rise-fall or Peaking intonation for choices, lists, unfinished thoughts and conditional sentences.

● Choices (alternative questions.)

○ Are you having ➚soup or ➘salad?

○ Is John leaving on ➚Thursday or ➘Friday?
○ Does he speak ➚German or ➘French?
○ Is your name ➚Ava or ➘Eva?
● Lists (rising, rising, rising, falling)
Intonation falls on the last item to show that the list is finished.

○ We've got ➚apples, pears, bananas and ➘oranges

○ The sweater comes in ➚blue, white pink and ➘black
○ I like ➚football, tennis, basketball and ➘volleyball.
○ I bought ➚a tee-shirt, a skirt and a ➘handbag.
● Unfinished thoughts (partial statements)
In the responses to the following questions, the rise-fall intonation indicates reservation.
The speaker hasn’t fully expressed his/her thoughts.

○ Do you like my new handbag? Well the ➚leather is ➘nice... ( but I don't like it.)
○ What was the meal like? Hmm, the ➚fish was ➘good... (but the rest wasn't great).
○ So you both live in Los Angeles? Well ➚Alex ➘does ... (but I don't).

● Conditional sentences
(The tone rises in the first clause and falls gradually in the second clause.)

○ If he ➚calls, ask him to leave a ➘message.

○ Unless he ➚insists, I'm not going to ➘go.
○ If you have any ➚ problems, just ➘contact us.
Fall-Rise Intonation (➘➚)
(The voice falls and rises usually within one word.

The main function of fall-rise or Dipping intonation is to show that the speaker is not certain of the answer they are
giving to a question, or is reluctant to reply (as opposed to a falling tone used when there is no hesitation). It is also
used in polite requests or suggestions.

● Hesitation/reluctance:
○ So you'd be willing to confirm that? ...Well ... I ➘sup➚pose so ...
○ You didn't see him on Monday? I don't quite ➘re➚member …

● Politeness-Doubt-Uncertainty: (You are not sure what the answer might be.)

○ Perhaps we could ➘vis➚it the place?

○ Should we ➘cop➚y the list?
○ Do you think it's ➘al➚lowed?
Role Play
Transactions
- Role-play is any speaking activity when you either
put yourself into somebody else's shoes, or when
you stay in your own shoes but put yourself into
an imaginary situation!

- Imaginary people

- Imaginary situation

- Error correction
- Self- correction

- Peer- correction
- “Where is the canteen?”

- “What is the objective of this meeting?”

- “Why did you send the email?”

- “Pass me that book.”

- “Call me after work”.

- “Print this photograph”.

- “You have made a mistake.”

- “You have sent me the wrong mail.”

 - “Do you know where the canteen is?”
- “Where is the canteen?”
- “Could you tell me the objective of the meeting?”
- “What is the objective of this meeting?”
- “Would you mind sharing why you sent the email?
- “Why did you send the email?”
- “Could you please pass me that book?”
- “Pass me that book.”
- “I would appreciate if you could call me after work.”
- “Call me after work”.
- “Could you print this photograph?”
- “Print this photograph”.
- I believe a mistake has been made/I think there is
- “You have made a mistake.”
a mistake here”
- “You have sent me the wrong mail.”
- “I think the mail that was sent to me was not the
right one”/ “The mail that was given to me seems to
be different”.
Dyadic
Communication

Dyadic communication means the interaction between two persons. Any

communication that takes place between two persons can be described as dyadic
communication. (Examples- face to face communication, telephonic conversation,
and interview).

Speaking has two functions: transactional and interpersonal. The purpose of

transactional function is to convey information and facilitate the exchange of
goods or services. The purpose of interpersonal function is to establish and
maintain social relations.
Everyday Transactions
- Sounding very polite

- Encouraging and Comforting

- Making Suggestions

- Appreciate or Complement

- Giving opinions and preferences

Sounding very polite
Find out the polite sentences

- Could I borrow your laptop?

- Could you repeat that, please?
- I want another book.
- I think you might be mistaken.
- Could you send me the picture?
- It would be great if you could do this today.
- I’d like another text.
- What?
- It would be great if you could do this today.
- Hey, where’s the canteen?
- Do this today.
- I’m afraid not.
- Send me the picture.
Answers

- Could I borrow your laptop?

- Could you repeat that, please?
- I want another book.
- I think you might be mistaken.
- Could you send me the picture?
- It would be great if you could do this today.
- I’d like another text.
- What?
- It would be great if you could do this today.
- Hey, where’s the canteen?
- Do this today.
- I’m afraid not.
- Send me the picture.
Sounding very polite using Modals
- Could I borrow your laptop?
- Could you repeat that, please?
- I think you might be mistaken.
- Could you send me the picture?
- It would be great if you could do this today.
- I would like another text.
- It would be great if you could do this today.
- I’m afraid not.
We can use certain modal verbs, especially the past
forms of the modal verbs can, may, shall and will (could,
might, should and would), to be more polite or less direct.
We can also use other modal expressions (certainly,
possibility, be likely to, be supposed to be). We often do
this when we ask for something or ask someone to do
something.
(Source:cambridge.org)
Politeness is about keeping good relations with your listener or reader. There are two types of politeness
1. – showing the listener or reader that you value and respect them.
2. – changing or softening what you say so as not to be too direct or forceful.

[addressing an audience] Ladies and gentlemen, please welcome Mr William …

[a waiter in a restaurant] May I take your plate, sir?
[a message in a thank-you card] Thank you for your wonderful gift.
[asking a stranger for directions] Excuse me, I’m looking for Cathedral Street.
(Source:cambridge.org)
Modality is about a speaker’s or a writer’s attitude towards the world. A
speaker or writer can express certainty, possibility, willingness, obligation,
necessity and ability by using modal words and expressions.

Modals (also called modal verbs or modal auxiliaries) in English are : can, could,
may, might, will, shall, would, should, must.
Can to request permission Can I open the window?
Can to express ability I can climb trees.
May to express possibility I may be home late.
May to request permission May I sit down, please?
Must to express obligation I must go now.
Must to express strong belief She must be over 90 years old.
Should to give advice You should stop smoking.
Would to request or offer Would you like a cup of tea?
Would in if-sentences If I were you, I would say sorry.

(Source: esl.fis.edu)
I’m fine - This expression is common in the sense of “I can do it myself” (when a colleague asks you “do
you need any help?, you say, “No, I’m fine”)

I’m afraid - The colloquial form of “I’m afraid” means I admit with regret, and is used to express polite or
formal apology or regret. (I’m afraid I don’t understand).

With pleasure - It means gladly and is used in conversational English to express polite agreement or
acceptance. ("Would you deliver a message for me?" "Yes, with pleasure.")

My pleasure - This expression is used as a polite reply to receiving thanks. It is similar but more polite
than You are welcome. ("Thanks for your help." "(It was) My pleasure.")
 - You stand as good as anyone

- Just give it your best shot.

- Give it a try

Encouraging and - What are you waiting for?

Comforting - Stay strong

- Don’t lose heart

- Keep going
Situations for practice

A friend who is trying A cousin who has

for civil service lost his job

A student who has A taxi driver who lost

missed a final exam her license
due to fever
More phrases
- That’s a good effort

- Keep up the good work

- I’m sure you would overcome it in no time.

- That’s a real improvement

- You’re on the right track!

Making Suggestions

Making Suggestions means expressing your opinion about what should be done. We
often make suggestions and give advice in our day-to-day interactions.

Could have expresses regret.

Could offers suggestions or
possibilities also.
Could can be used to make - You could have talked to
- You could talk to your
suggestions. your boss.
manager.
- Why don’t we go to the - You could have asked
- You could ask your
canteen? Rayan to help you with
teacher to help you with
- We could go to the your assignment
your assignment.
canteen. - I could have tried to help
- I could try to help you.
These two sentences are you
Here the speaker is saying “I
similar in meaning: the speaker Here the speaker is saying
have some possible
is suggesting to go to the “You had the chance to do this
suggestions for you. It is
canteen. or that. It was possible for this
possible to do this. And it is
or that to happen. You missed
possible to do that.
some good opportunities.
Should gives definite advice and
suggestions.
- You should talk to your manager.
- Maybe you should talk to your
manager.
Here should gives definite advice. In the
first sentence the speaker is saying “I
believe it is important for youto do this.
This is what I recommend”.
In the second sentence, the use of
maybe softens the strength of the
advice.
Should have is used to to express
regret.
- You should have talked to your
friend and got some help from
her.
Here the speaker is saying, “It was
important for you to talk to the friend,
but you didn’t do it. You made a
mistake.
Giving Opinions and Preferences
In our everyday life we face many situations in which we are required to express our
agreement/disagreement with views and actions of people we interact with or see
around.
Disagreement
Agreement
1. I don't think so.
1. I agree with you 100 percent.
2. (strong) No way.
2. I couldn't agree with you
3. I'm afraid I disagree.
more.
4. (strong) I totally disagree.
3. That's so true.
5. I beg to differ.
4. That's for sure.
6. (strong) I'd say the exact
5. (slang) Tell me about it!
opposite.
6. You're absolutely right.
7. Not necessarily.
7. Absolutely.
8. That's not always true.
8. That's exactly how I feel.
9. That's not always the case.
9. Exactly.
10. No, I'm not so sure about
that.
Expressing preference by using the phrase ‘would rather’.

Would rather expresses preference.

- I would rather go to a movie tonight than study

grammar.

Here the simple form of a verb follows both would rather and
than.

- I would rather study chemistry than physics.

Here the verb is same, therefor the verb is not usually repeat
Examples: after than

1. I’d rather stay at home than go out tonight

2. I’d rather not go out tonight.
3. We’d rather go on Monday.
4. I’d rather not fly. I hate planes.
Would prefer

Just like “would rather,” we can use “would prefer” to talk about specific preferences.

● Would you prefer to go out or stay home?

● I’d prefer to go out.
● I’d prefer to go out than stay home.

(Source: Voanews)
 ROLE PLAY- Exercises
-Using language in different situations for desired effect.
EXERCISE 1.
Fill in the following conversation with suitable phrases from the options.

_____________ you were in my class right? _________ this is very last minute but,
___________ I borrow the notes you made last year? I have this strong feeling that if I work
hard enough, I __________ just crack this exam. I think I had taken the subject too lightly
last time but I am ____________ more serious this time over. Then again, there is a
possibility that I __________ need more than self preparation, and with the help of your
notes, I ____________ definitely be able to structure my studies better. I’ll be really grateful
for your help and it will be _____________to help you out with my notes on any other
subject you require.

( I’m fine, may , excuse me, thank you , could, would, might, my pleasure, rather,
certainly ,unexpectedly, should, can, will, must, shall, with pleasure, I’m afraid )
EXERCISE 2.
Fill in the following conversation with suitable phrases from the options.

Good Evening! It has been a while since I’ve looked at those notes. They ___________ be here
somewhere. I ____________ share my notes to you if I ________ find them. I am sure you are
_____________ with your preparations. I hope my notes are understandable as _____________ I
have quite a way with my acronyms and symbols when I write. You____________ compare my
notes with maybe one or two others as well, as I _____________ and probably ____________
have made mistakes of my own. I _________________ on your mode of repayment for my
notes. Though ___________ with seeking your help in the time of need, I ______________ if
you ___________ consider spending some time together. If you _______________study than
catch up I _____________ understand but if not, you _____________ consider this as my
invitation to coffee.

( would, should, could, might, I’m afraid, I’m fine, would rather, absolutely, may, can, shall, must, I would prefer,
right on track, a good effort, beg to differ, couldn’t agree with you more )
EXERCISE 3.
Fill in the following conversation with suitable phrases from the options.

Hey there! Sorry I got a call. I ___________________ . I _________have forgotten to have fun
because of all this pressure. How silly of me to offer my notes in return when I __________
have easily offered just about anything to show my appreciation. _____________________ !
We _____________ go for coffee and ________________ catch up. ______________ we have to
keep it on a weekday though, as _______________be engrossed in my work during the
weekend. I have to ______________ at it until I feel ready for the exams. So let me know of
a day you _____________. Once again_______________ for agreeing to help me out.

(would, could, should, must, might, can, may, I’m afraid, I would rather, thank you, my pleasure, with
pleasure, You’re absolutely right, would prefer, should prefer, couldn’t agree with you more, keep going,
exactly, certainly,)
EXERCISE 4.
Fill in the following conversation with suitable phrases from the options.

Haha! ___________________________. Don’t worry so much. With your effort and our
combined notes ______________________. Just keep at it and don’t lose heart. I know it
__________be stressful at times, but I suggest take breaks once in a while. I do yoga
sometimes and maybe you ___________ give it a try. Whatever happens stay strong and
just ______________. I’m _______________________ your fears in no time and when we meet
next week I _________ give you a few tips and tricks and help you understand my notes
better. I’ll confirm the date and time tonight as ________________ I have some urgent work
to attend to right now and _________________ we continue after work hours. So until we
meet,____________________ . Ciao!

(I’m sure you are right on track, I agree with you, I completely disagree, you stand as good as anyone,
could, can, should, might, must, keep going, sure you would overcome, I’m afraid, I would rather, keep
up the good work, I couldn’t agree more )