Carbon,6C

Carbon (from Latin: carbo "coal") is a chemical element with the symbol C and atomic number 6. It is nonmetallic and
tetravalent—making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds. It belongs to group 14 of the periodic
table.Carbon makes up only about 0.025 percent of Earth's crust. Three isotopes occur naturally, 12C and 13C being stable,
while 14C is a radionuclide, decaying with a half-life of about 5,730 years.Carbon is one of the few elements known since
antiquity.

 Atomic number (Z) 6

 Group group 4
 Period period 2
 Block p-block
 Element categories sometimes considered a
metalloid
 Electron configuration [He] 2s2 2p2
 Electrons per shell 2, 4 Graphite (left) and diamond (right),
two allotropes of carbon
 Atomic properties

 Oxidation states −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, +1,[4] +2, +3,[5] +4[6] (a mildly acidic oxide)

 Electronegativity Pauling scale: 2.55

 Ionization energies 1st: 1086.5 kJ/mol

2nd: 2352.6 kJ/mol
3rd: 4620.5 kJ/mol

 Covalent radius sp3: 77 pm

sp2: 73 pm
sp: 69 pm
 Van der Waals radius 170 pm

Physical properties
Some forms of carbon: a) diamond; b)
 Phase at STP(Standard Temperature and Pressure)-solid graphite; c) lonsdaleite; d-f) fullerenes (C60,
C540, C70); g) amorphous carbon; h)
 Sublimation point 3915 K ​(3642 °C, ​6588 °F) carbon nanotube.
 Density (near r.t.) amorphous: 1.8–2.1 g/cm3
graphite: 2.267 g/cm3
diamond: 3.515 g/cm3
 Triple point 4600 K, ​10,800 kPa
 Heat of fusion graphite: 117 kJ/mol
 Molar heat graphite: 8.517 J/(mol·K)
 capacity diamond: 6.155 J/(mol·K) Spectral lines of carbon
 Diamond
It is the purest crystalline allotrope of carbon. It has a number of carbons, linked
together tetrahedrally. Each tetrahedral unit consists of carbon bonded to four carbon
atoms which are in turn bonded to other carbons. This gives rise to an allotrope of
carbon having a three-dimensional arrangement of C-atoms.

Each carbon is sp3 hybridized and forms covalent bonds with four other carbon atoms at
the corners of the tetrahedral structure.

Structure of Diamond
Graphite

Structure of Carbon Allotrope (Graphite):

Graphite has a unique honeycomb layered structure. Each layer is
composed of planar hexagonal rings of carbon atoms in which carbon-
carbon bond length within the layer is 141.5 picometers.

Out of four carbon atoms three forms sigma bonds whereas the fourth
carbon forms pi-bond. The layers in graphite are held together by Vander
Waal forces.
Fullerenes

They are spheroidal molecules having the composition, C2n, where n ≥ 30. These carbon
allotropes can be prepared by evaporating graphite with a laser.

Unlike diamond, fullerenes dissolve in organic solvents. The carbon atoms are sp2
hybridized.

Structure of Fullerenes

Carbyne

Carbyne is a modification of carbon, known as an allotrope. It is manufactured

synthetically, comprises one single and very long chain of carbon atoms, and is
regarded as a material with extremely interesting electronic and mechanical properties

Structure of Carbyne
Characteristics

The allotropes of carbon include graphite, one of the softest known substances, and
diamond, the hardest naturally occurring substance. It bonds readily with other small
atoms, including other carbon atoms, and is capable of forming multiple stable covalent
bonds with suitable multivalent atoms. Carbon is known to form almost ten million
compounds, a large majority of all chemical compounds. Carbon also has the highest
sublimation point of all elements. Graphite is much more reactive than diamond at
standard conditions, despite being more thermodynamically stable, as its delocalised pi
system is much more vulnerable to attack. For example, graphite can be oxidised by hot
concentrated nitric acid at standard conditions to mellitic acid, C6(CO2H)6, which
preserves the hexagonal units of graphite while breaking up the larger structure.
Theoretically predicted phase diagram of carbon

Carbon sublimes in a carbon arc, which has a temperature of about 5800 K. Thus, irrespective of its allotropic form, carbon
remains solid at higher temperatures than the highest-melting-point metals such as tungsten or rhenium. Although
thermodynamically prone to oxidation, carbon resists oxidation more effectively than elements such as iron and copper, which
are weaker reducing agents at room temperature.
 Biological role

 Carbon is essential to life. This is because it is able to form a huge variety of chains
of different lengths. It was once thought that the carbon-based molecules of life could
only be obtained from living things. They were thought to contain a ‘spark of life’.
However, in 1828, urea was synthesised from inorganic reagents and the branches of
organic and inorganic chemistry were united.

 Living things get almost all their carbon from carbon dioxide, either from the
atmosphere or dissolved in water. Photosynthesis by green plants and photosynthetic
plankton uses energy from the sun to split water into oxygen and hydrogen. The
oxygen is released to the atmosphere, fresh water and seas, and the hydrogen joins
with carbon dioxide to produce carbohydrates.

Living things that do not photosynthesise have to rely on consuming other living
things for their source of carbon molecules. Their digestive systems break
carbohydrates into monomers that they can use to build their own cellular structures.
Respiration provides the energy needed for these reactions. In respiration oxygen
rejoins carbohydrates, to form carbon dioxide and water again. The energy released
in this reaction is made available for the cells.
Natural abundance

Carbon is found in the sun and other stars, formed from the debris of a
previous supernova. It is built up by nuclear fusion in bigger stars.

It is present in the atmospheres of many planets, usually as carbon

dioxide. On Earth, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
is currently 390 ppm and rising.

Graphite is found naturally in many locations. Diamond is found in the

form of microscopic crystals in some meteorites. Natural diamonds are
found in the mineral kimberlite, sources of which are in Russia,
Botswana, DR Congo, Canada and South Africa.
In combination, carbon is found in all living things. It is also found in
fossilised remains in the form of hydrocarbons (natural gas, crude oil, oil
shales, coal etc) and carbonates (chalk, limestone, dolomite etc).
o Carbon is found and is exchanged between
global reservoirs: the atmosphere, the ocean,
terrestrial plant biomass, and soil. The
balance of carbon between these reservoirs
is important for life.
Uses

• Carbon is unique among the elements in its ability to form strongly bonded chains, sealed off by hydrogen
atoms. These hydrocarbons, extracted naturally as fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas), are mostly used as
fuels. A small but important fraction is used as a feedstock for the petrochemical industries producing
polymers, fibres, paints, solvents and plastics etc.

• Impure carbon in the form of charcoal (from wood) and coke (from coal) is used in metal smelting. It is
particularly important in the iron and steel industries.

• Graphite is used in pencils, to make brushes in electric motors and in furnace linings. Activated charcoal is
used for purification and filtration. It is found in respirators and kitchen extractor hoods.

• Carbon fibre is finding many uses as a very strong, yet lightweight, material. It is currently used in tennis
rackets, skis, fishing rods, rockets and aeroplanes.

• Industrial diamonds are used for cutting rocks and drilling. Diamond films are used to protect surfaces such as
razor blades.

• The more recent discovery of carbon nanotubes, other fullerenes and atom-thin sheets of graphene has
revolutionised hardware developments in the electronics industry and in nanotechnology generally.