Levelling and differentiating solvents

• Levelling solvents are solvents in which the strength of any acid or base in
them are the same strength.
As an example oxalic, sulphuric and nitric acid all ionize in water and have
varying acid strength
o However, in liquid ammonia, they all ionize completely.
o ie they are all levelled (have similar strength) in liquid ammonia
• In differentiating solvents acids/bases dissociate to varying degrees, ie, they
exhibit different strength.
• Eg, acetic acid; many mineral acids ionize partially in it,
o However, (usual) bases, e.g NaOH ionize completely in it.
o Therefore we may infer that a differentiating solvent for acids will act as a
levelling solvent for bases and vise versa.
Lewis definition for acids and bases
• Acids are substances which accept electron pairs
These include:
a. Positive ions : Cu2+ , Ag+ , Co2+
b. Molecules formed by elements in the first row of the periodic table
with incomplete octet: BF3 , BeCl2
c. Compounds in which the central atom may exceed its octet by use of
d-orbital, TiCl4, SiCl4,
• Bases donate electron pairs
a. Negative ions F- , OH- , CN-
b. molecules with lone pairs of electrons, e-g ammonia
c. molecules with C-C multiple bonds, CH2=CH2
 Hard and soft acids and bases
• This theory proposes that soft acids react faster and form stronger bonds
with soft bases. And hard acids react faster and form stronger bonds with
hard bases, all other factors being equal.
• Hard acids have the following characteristics:
• Small atomic/ionic radius
• High oxidation state
• Polarizing in nature
• Eg: Ti4+ , Cr3+, BF3 , Cr6+
• Hard bases : have high electronegativity, slightly polarizable: NH3, CO32- , F- ,
OH- , CH3COO-
• The affinity of hard acids and hard bases for each other is mainly ionic in
nature.
• Soft acids and bases tends to have the following
characteristics:
• Large atomic/ ionic radius
• Low/zero oxidation state
• Acids: negligible polarizability and bases: highly polarizable
• Low electronegativity (bases)
• Soft acids: Ag+ , CH3Hg+ , BH3, Cd2+ , Pt2+ , Pd2+ , Hg2
• Soft bases: I- , H- , SCN- , R3P
The affinity of soft acids and bases for each other is mainly
covalent in nature
 Oxidation and Reduction

• Many reactions occur by formal loss of electron by one atom and gain of
electron by another.
• The process of electron gain is called reduction while that of loss of
electron is known as oxidation
• Both are jointly called redox reaction
• Species that supply electrons are called reducing agent
• While the one that receives electrons is called oxidizing agent (Oxidant)
• Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) ↔ Zn2+(aq) + Cu(S)
Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) (oxidation; o.s of 0 to +2)
Cu2+(aq)→ Cu(S) (reduction; o.s of +2 to 0)
 Electrochemical cell
• An electrochemical cell is a device that produces an electric current from energy.
• They are of two types
I. Converts chemical energy to electrical energy: galvanic cell
II. Converts electrical energy chemical energy: electrolytic cell
• Galvanic cell
• Consists of two conductive electrode ( the anode and cathode)
• Anode is the electrode where oxidation occurs
• Cathode is where reduction occurs
• In between both electrode is the electrolyte that contains free moving ions.
• The metal of the anode oxidize from 0 to a positive oxidation state
• The metal ion in solution will accept electrons from the cathode and the o.s of
the ions becomes zero; resulting in solid metal deposited on the cathode.
• The two electrodes are electrically connected to each other allowing for a
flow of electrons that leave the metal of the anode and flow through this
connection to the ions at the surface of the cathode.
• A voltameter measures the change of electrical potential between the anode
and cathode, this voltage is termed emf .
• The path of electrons in an electrochemical cell is shown using a cell diagram
e.g Zn| Zn2+ (1M) || Cu2+ (1M) | Cu

H/W
1. Draw an annotated diagram of a galvanic cell (Daniel cell) using the cell
diagram shown above.
2.What does the double line (||) and (1M) from the ell diagram above
represent