AP Bio Learning Target – Illustrate gene pool

dynamics & microevolution

Due today –
Phylogenetic Trees &
Variation & Gene Pools

Chapter 21 Reading
Guide due Monday

AP Biology
 There are 5 agents of evolutionary change
Mutation Gene Flow Non-random mating

Genetic Drift Selection

AP Biology
 Populations & gene pools

 a population is a localized group of

interbreeding individuals
 gene pool is a collection of alleles in a

particular population (remember difference

between alleles & genes!)
 allele frequency is how common that allele

is in the population (how many of A or a in

whole population)

AP Biology
 Evolution of populations
 Evolution is a change in allele frequencies in a
population
 What conditions would cause allele frequencies

not to change?
 In a non-evolving population you would need to

remove all agents of evolutionary change

- very large population size (no genetic drift)

- no migration (no gene flow in or out)
- no mutation (no genetic change)
- random mating (no sexual selection)
- no natural selection (everyone is equally fit)
AP Biology
 Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
 In a non-evolving population allele frequencies are
preserved (they are said to be in Hardy-Weinberg
equilibrium), but:
 natural populations are rarely in Hardy-Weinberg

equilibrium
 However it provides a useful model to measure if

evolutionary forces are acting on a population

G.H. Hardy W. Weinberg

APmathematician
Biology physician
 Hardy-Weinberg theory
 Counting Alleles
 assume 2 alleles = B, b
 frequency of dominant allele (B) = p

 frequency of recessive allele (b) = q

 frequencies must add up to 1 (100%), so:

p+q=1
BB Bb bb

AP Biology
 Hardy-Weinberg theory
 Counting Genotypes
 frequency of homozygous dominant: p x p = p2
 frequency of homozygous recessive: q x q = q2
 frequency of heterozygotes: (p x q) + (q x p) = 2pq
 frequencies of all individuals must add to 1 (100%), so:

p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1

BB Bb bb

AP Biology
 H-W formulas
 Alleles: p+q=1
B b

 Genotypes: p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
BB Bb bb

BB Bb bb

AP Biology
 Using Hardy-Weinberg equation
population:
First calculate
100 cats frequency of b from
84 black, 16 white the known number
How many of each of bb genotypes.
genotype?

BB Bb bb

AP Biology
 Using Hardy-Weinberg equation
population: q2 (bb)= 16/100 = .16
100 cats q (b): √.16 = 0.4
84 black, 16 white
How many of each Now work out p
allele? p (B)= 1 - 0.4 = 0.6

BB Bb bb

AP Biology
 Using Hardy-Weinberg equation
population: q2 (bb): 16/100
100 cats = .16
84 black, 16 white q (b): √.16 = 0.4
How many of each genotype?
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 p (B): 1 - 0.4 = 0.6
Now work out
p2=0.36 2pq=0.48 q2=0.16 genotype
frequencies
BB Bb bb

AP Biology
 How to Solve H-W Problems
(p + q)2 = p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
Frequency of allele types Frequency of allele combinations
p = Frequency of allele B p2 = Frequency of BB (homozygous dominant)
q = Frequency of allele b 2pq = Frequency of Bb (heterozygous)
q2 = Frequency of bb (homozygous recessive)

B b
Frequency of allele B BB Bb
Frequency of allele
combination BB in the
population = p2 b Bb bb combination bb in the
population = q2

Frequency of allele
combination Bb in the
population (add these
AP Biology
together to get 2pq)
 How to Solve H-W Problems
 Remember to use proportions in your calculations, not
percentages!
1. Examine question to determine what information is
given. In most cases this is the frequency of the
homozygous recessive phenotype q2 or the allele q
2. Take the square root of q2 to find q or multiply q to
find q2
3. Find p by subtracting q from 1 (p = 1 – q)
4. Find p2 by multiplying it by itself (p2 = p x p)
5. Find 2pq by multiplying p x q x 2
6. Check that your calculations are correct by adding
values for p2 + q2 + 2pq (the sum should be 1)
AP Biology
  A population of mice has a gene consisting of 90% B alleles
(black fur) and 10% b alleles (gray fur). Determine the proportion
of offspring that will be black and the proportion that will be
gray.

Recessive allele q = 0.1

Dominant allele p=

Recessive phenotype q2 =

Homozygous dominant p2 =

Heterozygous 2pq =
AP Biology
  A population of mice has a gene consisting of 90% B alleles
(black fur) and 10% b alleles (gray fur). Determine the proportion
of offspring that will be black and the proportion that will be gray.

Recessive allele q = 0.1 Given

Dominant allele p = 0.9 1–q=p 1 – 0.1 = 0.9

Recessive phenotype q2 = 0.01 q x q = q2 0.1 x 0.1 = 0.01

Homozygous dominant p2 = 0.81 p x p = p2 0.9 x 0.9 = 0.81

Heterozygous 2pq = 0.18 2 x p x q = 2pq

2 x 0.9 x 0.1 = 0.18

AP Biology Check q2 + p2 + 2pq = 1 0.01 + 0.81 + 0.18 = 1

  A population of mice has a gene consisting of 90% B alleles
(black fur) and 10% b alleles (gray fur). Determine the proportion
of offspring that will be black and the proportion that will be
gray.

Recessive allele q = 0.1

Dominant allele p = 0.9 1% of the

population
Recessive phenotype q2 = 0.01 will be gray

Homozygous dominant p2 = 0.81

99% of the
population
Heterozygous 2pq = 0.18 will be
black

AP Biology
 A population of 134 lizards has 81 individuals with green skin and a gg
genotype. The remaining 53 individuals have yellow skin and therefore
have either the GG or Gg genotype. What proportion of the population
are homozygous dominant?

Recessive allele q=

Dominant allele p=

Recessive phenotype q2 = .60 81/134 = .60

Homozygous dominant p2 =

Heterozygous 2pq =
AP Biology
 A population of 134 lizards has 81 individuals with green skin and a gg
genotype. The remaining 53 individuals have yellow skin and therefore
have either the GG or Gg genotype. What proportion of the population
are homozygous dominant?
Recessive allele q = 0.77 √0.60 = 0.77

Dominant allele p = 0.23 1 - 0.77 = 0.23

Recessive phenotype q2 = 0.60 81/134 = 0.60

Homozygous dominant p2 = 0.05 0.23 x 0.23 = 0.05

Heterozygous 2pq = 0.35 2 x 0.77 x 0.23 = 0.35

AP Biology
0.60 + 0.05 + 0.35 = 1
 Hardy Weinberg problems
In humans, the ability to taste the chemical
phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) is inherited as a simple
dominant characteristic. You find that 360 out of
1000 college students could not taste the chemical.

What is the frequency of the allele for tasting PTC?

What percentage of students in this population are

heterogynous?

AP Biology
 Hardy Weinberg problems
While working with pea plants you find that 24
plants out of 400 exhibit the recessive dwarf trait.

What is the frequency of the tall gene?

What percentage of the plants have the recessive

allele?

AP Biology
 Hardy Weinberg problems
Albinism is recessive to normal pigmentation in
humans. The frequency of the albino allele was 10%
in a population.

Determine the proportion of people that you would

expect to be albino.

AP Biology
 Gene Pool Dynamics & Microevolution

Aa
AA AA

Aa

Aa

AA AA

AA Aa
AA
Aa AA

AA

AP Biology
 Gene Pool Dynamics & Microevolution

aa
Aa
AA AA

Aa
aa
Aa A’A aa
aa
AA AA

AA Aa
AA
Aa AA

aa
AA

AP Biology
 Gene Pool Dynamics & Microevolution
One aspect of gene flow is immigration & emigration – alleles may be
gained from or lost to other gene pools

aa
Aa
AA AA

Aa
aa
Aa A’A aa
aa
AA AA

AA Aa
AA
Aa AA

aa
AA
Spontaneous mutations can alter
allele frequencies and create new
alleles. Important to evolution –
original source of variation providing What is the other source of
APnew material for natural selection
Biology variation in a population?
 Gene Pool Dynamics & Microevolution
One aspect of gene flow is immigration & emigration – alleles may be
gained from or lost to other gene pools

aa
Aa
AA AA

Aa
aa
Aa A’A aa
aa
AA AA

Aa
AA
Aa AA

aa
AA

Selection pressure against certain allele combinations may reduce

reproductive success or cause death. Natural selection accumulates and
maintains favorable genotypes, reduces genetic diversity within gene pools,
AP Biology and increases differences between populations
 Gene Pool Dynamics & Microevolution

Deme 1 aa
Aa
AA AA

Aa
aa
Aa A’A aa
aa
AA AA

AA Aa
AA
Aa AA

aa
AA

Deme describes a local population that is genetically isolated

from other populations. Usually have clearly definable genetic
AP Biology or other character that sets them apart.
 Gene Pool Dynamics & Microevolution
Gene flow Geographical
between barriers isolate
populations the gene pool
can be the Aa
aa
and prevent
source of new AA aa regular gene
genetic aa Aa flow between
variation Aa aa populations
aa

AA Aa
AA
Aa AA

aa aa
AA

AP Biology
 Gene Pool Dynamics & Microevolution

aa
Aa
AA aa

Aa
aa
Aa aa
aa

AA Aa
AA
Aa AA

aa aa
AA

Mate choice (non-random mating): Individuals may not select

mates randomly, seeking particular phenotypes, increasing the
AP Biology frequency of these “favored” alleles in the population.
 Gene Pool Dynamics & Microevolution

aa
Aa
AA aa

Aa
aa
Aa aa
aa

AA Aa
Genetic drift: Chance events can cause
AA the allele frequency of
small populations
Aa AA to change randomly from generation to
generation. Can play a significant role in the
aa microevolution of
small populations. The founder effect
AA (small population colonizes
new area) and the bottleneck effect (population size dramatically
reduced by catastrophic event)

AP Biology
 Founder effect

AP Biology
 Bottleneck effect

AP Biology
 Bottleneck effect
Cheetahs
-~ 20,000
-Very little genetic
diversity
-Nearly went extinct at
end of last ice age
-Lack of variation creates
problems – sperm
abnormalities, decreased
fecundity, high cub
mortality, sensitivity to
disease

AP Biology
 Application of H-W principle
 Sickle cell anemia
Caused by inheriting a mutation in the
gene coding for haemoglobin
 oxygen-carrying blood protein
 recessive allele = HsHs
 normal allele = Hb
 low oxygen level causes
RBC to sickle
 clogging small blood vessels
 depriving tissues of oxygen
 damage to organs
 The condition is often lethal
AP Biology
 Sickle cell frequency
 High frequency of heterozygotes
 1 in 5 in Central Africans = HbHs
 unusual for allele with severe

detrimental effects in homozygotes

 1 in 100 = HsHs
 usually die before reproductive age

Why is the Hs allele maintained at such high

levels in African populations?

Suggests some selective advantage of

being heterozygous…
AP Biology
 Single-celled eukaryote parasite
Malaria (Plasmodium) spends part of its
life cycle in red blood cells

AP Biology 3
 Heterozygote Advantage
 In tropical Africa, where malaria is common:
 homozygous dominant (normal)
 die or reduced reproduction from malaria: HbHb
 homozygous recessive
 die or reduced reproduction from sickle cell anemia: HsHs
 heterozygote carriers are relatively free of both: HbHs
 survive & reproduce more, more common in population

AP Biology Frequency of sickle cell allele &

distribution of malaria
 Any Questions??

AP Biology