Department of Water Resources &

Irrigation Engineering

 Chapter one

What is hydrology ?
1.1 INTRODUCTION

 Hydrology is broadly defined as the geosciences that describes

and predicts the occurrence, circulation, and distribution of water
of the earth and its atmosphere.
 The study of hydrology helps us to know:-
 Maximum probable flood and its frequency;
 necessary for design of drains and culverts, dams and
reservoirs, channels and other flood control structures.
 Water yield from a basin - its occurrence, quantity and
frequency;
 necessary for the design of dams, municipal water supply,
water power, river navigation,
 The ground water development for which a knowledge of the
hydrogeology of the area.
 Maximum intensity of storm and its frequency for the design
of a drainage project in the area.
 Water is a finite Resources both in terms of spatial and temporal
availability.
 The use of water at any one time is therefore subtractible,
meaning that the use by somebody may preclude the use by
somebody else
 Increasing subtraction of water at upstream will decrease supply
downstream eventually fomenting conflicts
 In engineering term: We can quantify the availability of water
Measurement, Water balance analysis, etc

4
THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
Atmospheric Moisture

39
100 Moisture over land
Precipitation on land

61 385
P Evaporation from land Precipitation
on ocean
Snow
melt
Runoff Evap
Surface
runoff
Precipitation ET
424
Evap Evaporation
from ocean

Infiltration Streams
Groundwater
Recharge
Runoff
38 Surface discharge
Groundwater flow
1 Groundwater
Lake
Impervious
strata GW discharge

Reservoir
 CONT

 Runoff is that balance of rain water, which flows or runs over the
natural ground surface after losses by evaporation, interception
and infiltration.
 The yield of a catchment is the net quantity of water available
for storage, after all losses, for the purposes of water resources
utilization and planning, like irrigation, water supply, etc.
 Maximum flood discharge is the discharge in times of flooding
of the catchment area, i.e., when the intensity of rainfall is
greatest and the condition of the catchment regarding humidity is
also favorable for an appreciable runoff.
 The maximum flood that any structure can safely pass is called
the “design flood” and is selected after consideration of
economic and hydrologic factors.
 The most important task to be conducted before the design of
any hydraulic and irrigation structure :-
 Collecting relevant data,
 Test of the appropriateness of data‘s and
 Analysis of data by applying appropriate methods.

 Errors in the estimates of peak flood will result in a structure

that is either under sized or over sized.
 DATA TYPE AND SOURCES

 Depending upon the problem at hand, a hydrologist would need data

relating to the various relevant aspects of the hydrologic cycle. These
data may include:-
 Weather records: - temperature, humidity, and wind velocity,
Precipitation data,
 Stream-flow records,
 Infiltration and transpiration data,
 Evaporation characteristics of the area,
 Ground water characteristics,
 Physical and geological characteristics of the area under consideration.
 SOURCES OF DATA:

 Meteorological data ----From EMSA.

 Stream flow data---From MoWR or any other concerned bureaus or

departments.

 Data on Evaporation, transpiration, infiltration--MoA, or water

resources or any other concerned departments.

 The physical data of the area---EMA or specific studies conducted

at the respective areas.

THIESSEN POLYGON METHOD
 Construct polygons by connecting stations with lines
 Bisect the polygon sides

 Estimate the area of each stations polygon

 Sum the areas

 Determine the stations weights by dividing the station

area by the total area
 Determine areal precipitation by summing weighted
precipitation for each station
 THIESSEN POLYGON METHOD

Calculated
Rainfall Area of Station Areal
Station (in.) Station Weights Precipitation
A 0.55 15.00
B 0.87 33.00
C 2.33 28.80
D 5.40 16.40
E 1.89 24.30

Sum of Areas = 117.5 Precipitation =

 THIESSEN POLYGON METHOD
Calculated
Rainfall Area of Areal
Station (in.) Station Station Weights Precipitation
A 0.55 15.00 =15.00/117.5 = 0.13
B 0.87 33.00 = 33.00/117.5 =0.28
C 2.33 29.80 = 29.80/117.5 = 0.25
D 5.40 16.40 = 16.40/117.5 = 0.14
E 1.89 24.30 = 24.30/117.5 = 0.24

Sum of Areas = 117.5 Precipitation =

THIESSEN POLYGON METHOD
Calculated
Rainfall Area of Station
Station (in.) Station Weights Areal Precipitation
A 0.55 15.00 0.13 =0.13*0.55 = 0.07
B 0.87 33.00 0.28 = 0.28*0.87 = 0.24
C 2.33 28.80 0.25 0.57
D 5.40 16.40 0.14 0.75
E 1.89 24.30 0.21 0.39
Precipitation =
Sum of Areas = 117.5 SUM(E2:E6) = 2.03
THIESSEN POLYGON METHOD
 Unique for each gage network
 Allows for areal weighing of
precipitation data
 Does not allow for orographic effects
(those due to elevation changes)
 Most widely used method
ISOHYETAL METHOD
Draw lines of equal precipitation
Estimate precipitation in each grid
area within basin
Sum the values in each grid area
Divide the sum by the number of grid
areas to obtain a watershed areal
estimate of precipitation
ISOHYETAL METHOD
Calculated
Rainfall Area of Station Areal
Station (in.) Isohyet (in.) Station Weights Precipitation
A 0.55 0.50 7.25
B 0.87 1.00 24.00
C 2.33 2.00 11.90
D 5.40 3.00 44.85
E 1.89 4.00 10.10
5.00 7.70
6.00 2.20
2.00 8.60
sum of areas = 116.60
 ISOHYETAL METHOD
Calculated
Rainfall Area of Areal
Station (in.) Isohyet (in.) Station Station Weights Precipitation
A 0.55 0.50 7.25 = 7.25/116.6 = 0.05
B 0.87 1.00 24.00 = 24.0/116.6 = 0.18
C 2.33 2.00 11.90 11.90/116.6 = 0.09
D 5.40 3.00 44.85 0.33
E 1.89 4.00 10.10 0.08
5.00 7.70 0.06
6.00 2.20 0.02
2.00 8.60 0.06
sum of areas = 116.60
 ISOHYETAL METHOD
Calculated
Rainfall Area of Station
Station (in.) Isohyet (in.) Station Weights Areal Precipitation
A 0.55 0.50 7.25 0.05 = 0.5* 0.05 = 0.3
B 0.87 1.00 24.00 0.18 = 1.0*0.18 = 0.18
C 2.33 2.00 11.90 0.09 = 2.0*0.09 = 0.18
D 5.40 3.00 44.85 0.33 = 3.00*0.33 = 1.0
E 1.89 4.00 10.10 0.08 0.30
5.00 7.70 0.06 0.29
6.00 2.20 0.02 0.10
2.00 8.60 0.06 0.13
precipitation =
sum of areas = 116.60 = sum(f2:f9) = 2.20

Watershed precipitation = 2.20 in.

 ISOHYETAL METHOD
Calculated
Rainfall Area of Station Areal
Station (in.) Isohyet (in.) Station Weights Precipitation
A 0.55 0.50 7.25 0.05 0.03
B 0.87 1.00 24.00 0.18 0.18
C 2.33 2.00 11.90 0.09 0.18
D 5.40 3.00 44.85 0.33 1.00
E 1.89 4.00 10.10 0.08 0.30
5.00 7.70 0.06 0.29
6.00 2.20 0.02 0.10
2.00 8.60 0.06 0.13
sum of areas = 116.60 2.20

Watershed precipitation = 2.20 in.

ISOHYETAL METHOD
Magnitude and extent of resultant rainfall
areas are calculated
One of most accurate methods
Difficult to draw accurately
Can overlay topographical maps to take
into account orographic effects and storm
morphology
 DISTANCE
WEIGHTING

w *P i i
Px  i 1
n

w
i 1
i

1
where, wi  ( )
d2
and d2  (  x ) 2  ( y ) 2

(From: WW 2010 Project

University of Illinois, Point
Precipitation Measurements,
Areal Estimates and Relationships
to Hydrologic Modeling, via
ABRFC Home Page -
http://info.abrfc.noaa.gov/)
 Techniques of Filling Missing Data

Simple arithmetic average

• Choose three rain gauge stations as close to and as evenly
spaced around the station with missing record (station X).
• Collect the rainfall data for the three stations (1,2,3) on the
day(s) for which the data at station X are missing.
• The average annual rainfall values at all the four stations
(1,2,3,X) should also be known.
  If the average annual rainfalls of stations 1,2 &3 differ with in
10% of the average annual rainfall of station X, then simple
arithmetic average of the three index stations will give the
estimate for the missing record. i.e,
 If N1, N2, N3 and Nx represent AARFof stations
1,2,3, & X respectively and when the average
annual precipitation at any of these three differ
from that of the station by more than 10%, the
normal ratio method is used.
 Example: Precipitation station X was inoperative for part of a month
during which a storm occured. The respective storm totals at three
surrounding stations A,B,and C were 107, 89, & 122mm. The normal
annual precipitation amounts of stations X, A, B and C are
respectively 978, 1220, 935 & 1200mm. Estimate the storm
precipitaion for station X.
Solution
 Nx = 978mm & 10% Nx = 97.8mm. Thus maximum permissible

annual precipitation of any of the three stations for taking ordinary

mean = 978 +97.8 = 1075.8mm < 1120 & 1200mm. Hence, the
annual precipitations at three stations differ by more than 10% of Nx.

Hence, weighted mean should be used. That is  

 FREQUENCY ANALYSIS
 Frequency is the number of times a flood of a given magnitude
can be expected to occur on average over a long period of time.
 Frequency analysis is the estimation of peak discharges for
various recurrence intervals.
 Another way to express frequency is with probability.
 Probability analysis seeks to define the flood flow with a
probability of being equaled or exceeded in any year.
 CONT
 Design flood frequency is expressed by return period, i.e., the
probability (expressed in years) where a flood of a target
size/magnitude is likely to occur.
 The probability of occurrence of a flood (having a recurrence
interval T-yr) in any year, i.e., the probability of exceedance, is

or the percent chance of its occurrence in any one year, i.e.,

frequency (F) is

& the probability that it will not occur in a given year, i.e., the
probability of non-exceedance, P‘ = 1 - P
 CONT

 While designing a weir/Dam, provision must be made for the flood

that is likely to occur during the lifetime of the structure.
 However, one can neither choose a very high nor a very low flood
magnitude for the design.
 A very high flood never occurs during the lifetime of the structure.
If such magnitude it will result in a costly structure.
 On the other hand, if a very low flood magnitude is chosen for the
design and exceeded, it will result in the failure of the structure,
 Therefore designer must chose a design frequency appropriate for
the structure.
 TIME OF CONCENTRATION

 The time of concentration (Tc) is the time at which the entire

watershed begins to contribute to runoff.

 This is calculated as the time taken for runoff to flow from the
most hydraulically remote point in the watershed to the outlet.
 Tc influences the peak discharge.

For the same size watershed, the shorter the Tc, the larger the
peak discharge.
This means that peak discharge has an inverse relationship with Tc.
 CONT

 Thetime of concentration can be computed by Kirpich‘s

equation which is widely used to estimate Tc:

Where:
Tc = Time of concentration (hr)
L = Length of the main water course (m)
S = slope of the main water course (m/m)
 CONT

Exercise
 Determine the time of concentration for a given watershed having
the following data:
Longest stream length = 798.2 m
Elevation @ U/S (m) = 3067.50 m
Elevation @ D/S (m) = 2946.90 m
 ELEMENT OF STATISTICS FOR HYDROLOGICAL
DATA
 The following are the sample statistics that are commonly used in fitting
distributions for hydrological analysis.
(1) Sample mean
Sample mean is generally used to represent measures of central tendency.

Where n is the number of sample size

(2) Sample standard deviation
 Sample standard deviation is the measure of the spread of the distribution
around the central value/mean.

 The square of the sample standard deviation is the variance, s2.

CONT

 The standard deviation divided by the mean is called the

coefficient of variation. It is a dimensionless desperation
parameter.
 CONT

4) Sample Skew coefficient

 Skew measure the symmetry of a distribution. The lack of
symmetry of a distribution is called skewness or asymmetry.
 The sample skew is given by:

 The degree of the skewness of the distribution is usually

measured by the “coefficient of skewness” (Cs) and is given by:
 CONT

(5) Kurtosis
 Kurtosis provides information about the peakedness of the central
portion of the distribution & is given by:
 TESTING FOR OUTLIERS

 The procedure followed for detection and treatment of high and

low outliers are summarized below:-
 If the station skew is greater than +0.4, test for high outliers are
considered first;
 If the station skew is less than -0.4, tests for low outliers are
considered first;
 Where the station skew is between ±0.4, test for both high and low
outlier should be applied before eliminating any outliers from the
data set.
 As quoted by Rao, Grubs and Beck (1972) used the following
equations to calculate outliers.
 In this test the quantities XH and XL are calculated by using:

Where x=mean and s = STDV of the natural logarithms of the

sample, KN = frequency factor and N = number of samples
 At 10% significant level, the following approximation for KN,
proposed by Pilon et al (1985) for N number of sample size.

 Sample values >XH ---- high outliers

 Sample values < XL ---- low outliers
TABULATED VALUE OF KN FOR DIFFERENT SAMPLE SIZE
EXAMPLE
Flow Log (e) (Flow) Flow Log (e) (Flow)
Year (cfs) (cfs) Year (cfs) (cfs)
1962 3990 8.29 1980 6140 8.72
1963 3390 8.13 1981 1180 7.07
1964 4160 8.33 1982 3060 8.03
1965 1500 7.31 1983 2260 7.72
1966 632 6.45 1984 2050 7.63
1967 2540 7.84 1985 4590 8.43
1968 3150 8.06 1986 2450 7.8
1969 2790 7.93 1987 798 6.68
1970 2180 7.69 1988 2750 7.92
1971 1710 7.44 1989 5130 8.54
1972 2910 7.98 1990 2240 7.71
1973 2240 7.71 1991 6890 8.84
1974 2720 7.91 Mean 2891 7.84283
1975 2270 7.73 STDV 1439.16 0.53825074
1976 3700 8.22 N   30
1977 1260 7.14 KN   2.56397912
1978 2760 7.92 XL   640.83
1979 3290 8.10 XH   10126.28

Skew=-0.66, there fore lower outlier should be checked first.

Check Sample value < XL and Sample Value >XH
632 is <XL is considered as low outlier, there is no higher outlier .
 Assignment 1(Sub. Date next class)
The maximum daily rainfall of x-meteorological station is shown in
the following table.
Maximum daily highest rainfall for 19 year period of x- meteorological station

 Calculate the mean, standard deviation, coefficient of variation, skew coefficient for the
sample data
 Test the data for the outlier
 Compute the design storm for 50 year return period using the EVI distribution using
tabular value of Yn and sn
 Compute the design storm for 50 year return period using EVI distribution (Gumbel
distribution) using Chow (1953) frequency factor