INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY AND

GENERAL HISTOLOGY

ANATOMY FOR 2ND PHARMACY *2014

Tesfayesus G.Ab

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Tissues and tissue types
Tissues are: Collections of specialized cells and
cell products organized to perform a limited
number of functions
Histology = study of tissues
 The four tissue types are:
Epithelial
Connective
Muscular
Nervous

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Epithelial T.
covers all free surfaces of the body (epi, on +
thelium, surface).

consists of cells attached to one another to form an

uninterrupted layer of cells that separates the
underlying tissues from the outside world.

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consist of closely apposed cells without (or very
little) intervening intercellular substances.

is avascular, but all epithelia "grow" on an

underlying layer of vascular CT.

connective tissue (CT) and epithelium are

separated by a basement membrane.

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CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF
EPITHELIAL CELLS
 Cellularity
cells are in close contact with each other with little
or no intercellular space between them.

 Specialized contacts
may have junctions for both attachment and
communication.

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 Polarity
epithelial tissues always have specific apical,
lateral and basal surface.

 Support by connective tissue

at the basal surface, both the epithelial tissue and
the connective tissue contribute to the basement
membrane.

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 Avascular (generally)
nutrients must diffuse.
 Innervated
 Regeneration
epithelial tissues have a high capacity for
regeneration ; plasticity.
 Great diversity of function

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Epithelial cells exhibit distinct polarity. They have
• an apical domain,
• a lateral domain, and a basal domain.

Specific biochemical characteristics are associated

with each cell surface.

 These characteristics and the geometric arrangements

of the cells in the epithelium determine the functional
polarity of all three cell domains.
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principal functions of epithelial
■ Covering, lining, and protecting surfaces (eg,
epidermis)
■ Absorption (eg, the intestinal lining)
■ Secretion (eg, parenchymal cells of glands)

 Specific cells of certain epithelia may be

contractile (myoepithelial cells) or specialized
sensory cells, such as those of taste buds or the
olfactory epithelium.

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Tissue Cells Extracellular Main Functions
Matrix

Nervous Elongated cells Very small amount Transmission of

with extremely fine nerve impulses
processes

Epithelial Aggregated Small amount lining of surface or

polyhedral cells body cavities;
glandular secretion

Muscle Elongated Moderate amount Strong contraction;

contractile cells body movements

Connective Several types of Abundant amount Support and

fixed and protection of
wandering cells tissues/ organs

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Cuboidal or pyramidal cells of epithelia generally
have spherical nuclei, while nuclei of squamous
epithelial cells are flattened.
An extracellular basement membrane (red) always
lies at the interface of epithelial cells and
connective tissue.
Nutrients for epithelial cells must diffuse across
the basement membrane.
Nerve fibers normally penetrate this structure, but
small blood capillaries (being epithelial
themselves) normally never enter epithelia.
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Intercellular Adhesion & Other Junctions
 Tight or occluding junctions form a seal between
adjacent cells.

 Adherent or anchoring junctions are sites of

string cell adhesion.

 Gap junctions are channels for communication

between adjacent cells.

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Apical Structures of Epithelial Cells

Microvilli are small membrane projections with

cores of actin filaments that generally function to
increase epithelial cells’ apical surface area for
absorption.
Stereocilia are long microvilli with specialized
mechanosensory function in cells of the inner ear
and for absorption in tissues of the male
reproductive tract.
Cilia are larger projecting structures with a well-
organized core of microtubules (in a 9 + 2
arrangement called the axoneme) in which
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restricted, dynein-based sliding of microtubules
Classification of epithelia

 1. Surface epithelia (Covering epithelia)

 2. Glandular epithelia

 3. Special epithelia

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Covering or Lining Epithelia

Cells of covering epithelia are organized into one or more

layers that cover the external surface or line the cavities
of an organ.
Such epithelia are classified according to the number of
cell layers and the cell morphology in the surface layer
Simple epithelia contain one cell layer and stratified
epithelia contain two or more layers.
Based on cell shape, simple epithelia are classified as
squamous (thin cells), cuboidal (cell width and thickness
roughly similar) or columnar (cells taller than they are
wide)

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This is a single layer of thin cells, in which the cell
nuclei (arrows) are the thickest and most visible
structures.

Simple epithelia are typically specialized as lining

of vessels and cavities, where they regulate
passage of substances into the underlying tissue.

Examples shown here are those lining the thin

renal loops of Henle (a), covering the outer wall of
the intestine (b), and lining the inner surface of the
cornea (c)
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Cells here are roughly as tall as they are wide.

Their greater thickness allows cytoplasm to be rich

in mitochondria and other organelles for a high level
of active transport across the epithelium and other
functions.

Examples shown here are from a renal collecting

tubule (a), a large thyroid follicle (b), and the thick
mesothelium covering an ovary (c).
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Cells here are always taller than they are wide,
with apical cilia or microvilli, and are often
specialized for absorption.

Complexes of tight and adherent junctions,

sometimes called “terminal bars” in light
microscopic images, are present at the apical ends
of cells.

 The examples shown here are from a renal

collecting duct (a), the oviduct lining, with both
secretory and ciliated cells (b), and the lining of
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the gall bladder (c).
Stratified squamous keratinized epithelium is found
mainly in the epidermis of skin, where it helps prevent
dehydration from the tissue (Figure 4–15).

Stratified squamous nonkeratinized epithelium

(Figure 4–15) lines wet cavities (eg, mouth, esophagus,
and vagina) where water loss is not a problem.
Here the flattened cells of the surface layer contain
much less keratin, retaining their nuclei and metabolic
function.

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Stratified squamous epithelia usually have
protective functions: protection against easy
invasion of underlying tissue by microorganisms
and protection against water loss.
These functions are particularly important in the
epidermis (a) in which differentiating cells become
keratinized, ie, filled with keratin and other
substances, eventually lose their nuclei and
organelles, and form superficial layers flattened
squames that impede water loss. Keratinized cells
are sloughed off and replaced by new cells from
more basal layers.
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Stratified cuboidal and stratified columnar
epithelia are both relatively rare. Stratified
cuboidal epithelium is restricted to excretory ducts
of salivary and sweat glands (Figure 4–15).
Stratified columnar epithelium can be found in the
conjunctiva lining the eyelids, where it is both
protective and mucus secreting.

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Transitional epithelium or urothelium lines much
of the urinary tract, extending from the kidneys to
the proximal part of the urethra, and is
characterized by a superficial layer of Importantly,
unique morphological features of the cells allow
distension of transitional epithelium as the urinary
bladder fills.

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nonkeratinized epithelia occur in many organs,
such as the esophageal lining (b) or outer covering
of the cornea (c). Here cells accumulate much less
keratin and retain their nuclei but still provide
protection against microorganisms.

Stratified cuboidal or columnar epithelia are fairly

rare but occur in excretory ducts of certain glands,
such as sweat glands (d) where the double layer of
cells allows additional functions.
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In addition to the simple and stratified epithelial
classifications, there is another type called
pseudostratified columnar epithelium (Figure 4–
17).
Here tall, irregular cells all are attached to the
basement membrane but their nuclei are at
different levels and not all cells extend to the free
surface, giving a stratified appearance.
A good example of pseudostratified columnar
epithelium is that lining the upper respiratory tract,
where the cells are also heavily ciliated.
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Secretory Epithelia & Glands
Epithelial cells that function mainly to produce
and secrete various macromolecules may occur in
epithelia with other major functions or comprise
specialized organs called glands.

Products to be secreted are generally stored in the

cells within small membrane-bound vesicles called
secretory granules.

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Secretory epithelial cells may synthesize, store,
and release proteins (eg, in the pancreas), lipids
(eg, adrenal, sebaceous glands), or complexes of
carbohydrates and proteins (eg, salivary glands).
Epithelia of mammary glands secrete all three
substances.
The cells of some glands (eg, sweat glands) have
little synthetic activity and secrete mostly water
and electrolytes (ions) transferred from the blood.

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Glands
 originate from an epithelium that penetrates the CT and
forms secretory units.
 consists of a functional portion of secretory and ductal
epithelial cells (parenchyma), which is separated by a
basal lamina from supporting CT elements (stroma).
 They are classified into three types based on the site of
secretion:
1. Exocrine glands secrete into a duct or onto a surface.
2. Endocrine glands secrete into the blood stream.
3. Paracrine glands secrete into the local extracellular
space.
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 A. Exocrine glands
 1. Unicellular Glands- composed of a single cell (e.g.,
goblet cells).

 2. Multicellular Glands - simple glands (duct does not

branch) or compound glands (duct branches).

 further classified based on the shape of the secretory

unit as acinar or alveolar (sac or flask-like) or tubular
(straight, coiled, or branched).

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 Mode of secretion
1. Mucus is viscous material, which usually protects
or
lubricates cell surfaces.
2. Serous secretions are watery and often rich in
enzymes.
3. Mixed secretions contain both mucus and serous
substances.
 Only multicellular glands can have mixed
secretions.
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 Mechanisms of secretion
1. In merocrine glands (e.g., parotid glands), the
secretory cells release their contents by exocytosis.

2. In apocrine glands (e.g., lactating mammary gland),

part of the apical cytoplasm of the secretory cells is
released along with the contents.

3. In holocrine glands (e.g., sebaceous gland), the

entire secretory cell along with its contents is released.

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 GLANDULAR EPITHELIA
A. Classification
1. Types of glands
a. Exocrine
b. Endocrine (hemocrine)
c. Paracrine
d. Autocrine
2. Exocrine gland criteria
a. Ducts
b. Secretory components
c. Types of secretion
d. Mechanisms of secretion
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 B. Ducts: structure in exocrine glands

1. Simple glands (= unbranched ducts)

2. Compound glands (= branched ducts)

 C. Secretory components
1. Number of secretory cells
a. Unicellular (e.g., goblet cells)
b. Multicellular glands (majority)
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 2. Structure of secretory units
a. Tubular
b. Acinar/alveolar

 D. Types of secretion (secretory product)

1. Mucous
2. Serous
3. Seromucous

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 E. Mechanisms of secretion (methods of release)
 1. Merocrine
 a. Exocytosis
 b. Examples: Salivary glands, Pancreas
 2. Apocrine
 a. Decapitation secretion
 b. Examples: Apocrine sweat glands, Mammary glands
 3. Holocrine
 a. Secretion of whole disintegrated cells
 b. Sebaceous glands

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Glandular Epithelium
Ducts carry products of exocrine glands to epithelial
surface
Include the following diverse glands
Mucus-secreting glands
Sweat and oil glands
Salivary glands
Liver and pancreas
Mammary glands
• May be: unicellular or multicellular

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Tesfish
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 DEFINITION OF ANATOMY

The word Anatomy is derived from a

Greek term ‘’Anatome’’

(Ana = apart & tome = cutting),

meaning cutting apart.
Present definition: the study of normal
structures of the body and their
relationships.
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 Anatomical Position

is the standard reference position of

the body used to describe the
position & relations of various
anatomical structures
All descriptions in human anatomy
are expressed in relation to the
anatomical position.

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 Anatomical Position…
To be in Anatomical position,
individuals (the body) should:
– Stand erect
– Eyes looking directly forward
– Upper limb by the sides
– Palms directed forward
– Lower limbs lie parallel (together)
– Feet directed anteriorly
(the toes directed forward)
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Other positions:
Supine position: face up & palm down when lying on
back (dorsal surface of the body).
Prone position: face down & palm face up when lying
on anterior (ventral) surface of body
Lithotomic position
recumbent position

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 Anatomical Planes and Sections
1. Sagittal Plane
• Directed from front to back dividing the body into
right and left parts
A. Mid-sagittal or median plane
 divides the body or part of the body into equal right &
left halves)

B. Para-sagittal planes
 divides the body (parts) into unequal right & left sides
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Anatomical Planes and Sections…
2. Coronal (Frontal) Plane
• It divides the body longitudinally into anterior
& posterior parts

3. Horizontal Plane
• a transverse plane which runs horizontally at a
right angle to the vertical plane
• It divides the body into upper & lower parts
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Body parts in front of the plane, or on the front of the body,
are said to be ventral or anterior. Body parts on the back of
the body or behind the plane are said to be dorsal or
posterior. 51
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 ANATOMICAL TERMS
1. Terms of Position/Relationship
• Anterior (ventral): a position on the front of the
body or nearer to it.
• Posterior (dorsal): a position on the back of the
body or nearer to it
• Medial: nearer to the median plane
• Lateral: away form the median plane
• Intermediate: a position b/n medial point &
lateral point
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Terms of Position/Relationship…
• Superior (cranial): a position relatively nearer
towards the highest point in the body.
• Inferior (caudal): a position relatively nearer
to the lower end of the body.
• Proximal: a position relatively nearer to a the
point of origin.
• Distal: a position relatively away from the
point of origin

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 55
Fig. 1-8, p. 18
Terms of Position/Relationship…
• Superficial: a position relatively nearer to the
surface of the body.
• Deep: a position relatively away from the
surface of the body, i.e. towards the inside
• Internal: nearer to the cavity (Lumina) of the
body
• External: away from cavity (Lumina) of the
body

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 Terms of laterality
• Ipsilateral: refers to same side of the body
• Contralateral: refers to the opposite side of the
body
• Bilateral: paired structures having right & left
members
• Unilateral: occurring on one side only
(unpaired)

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 Anatomical terms of movement
• Terms which describe the direction of
movements that take place at joints

• Supination: mov’t of the forearm by facing

palm of hand forward
• Pronation: mov’t of the forearm by turning
palm of hand backward

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 Anatomical terms of movement…
• Flexion: mov’t by decreasing angle b/n parts in
the direction bending is possible
• Extension: straightening mov’t by increasing
angle b/n parts
• Hyperextension: extension of a limb or part
beyond the normal limit
• Adduction: movement toward median plane
• Abduction: movement away from median plane

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 Anatomical terms of movement…
• Rotation: rotary mov’t of part of the body on fixed
axis
– Medial rotation: rotation toward median plane (inward)
– Lateral rotation: rotation away from median plane
(outward)

• Circumduction: is a circular movement of part of

the body on fixed origin but changing axis
– Is combination of flexion, extension, abduction, &
adduction movements.
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 Anatomical terms of movement…
• Opposition: mov’t of the thumb toward the
other four digits as in holding an object
• Reposition: the movement of thumb from
position of opposition back or away from other
fingers as in releasing an object
• Eversion: mov’t of the foot at an ankle joint by
turning the sole away from the median plane
• Inversion: turns the sole of the foot toward the
median plane (facing the sole medially)
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 Anatomical terms of movement…
• (dorsiflexion)Dorsal flexion: the up ward
flexion mov’t of foot at an ankle joint as in
taking off foot from automobile pedal

• Plantar flexion: the down ward flexion mov’t

of foot at an ankle joint toward

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 Anatomical terms of movement…
• Protrusion (protraction): is a movement
anteriorly as in protruding the mandible, lips, or
tongue
• Retrusion (retraction): is a movement
posteriorly, as in retruding the mandible, lips,or
tongue
• Elevation: raises or moves a part superiorly
• Depression: lowers or moves a part inferiorly

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 Body Cavities

• Internal compartments of hollow spaces called

body cavities

• Cavities protect internal organs, hold them in

place, and allow them to change size and shape.

• All the internal organs found within these

cavities are called viscera.

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 Body cavities
• Two main categories of body cavity are:
– Dorsal body cavities (cranial cavity & vertebral
canal)
– Ventral body cavities

• The ventral body cavity (coelom) is divided by

the diaphragm muscle into 2 parts:
– 1. A superior thoracic cavity
– 2. inferior abdominopelvic cavity (peritonial cavity)

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 Thoracic cavity,
Contains the
• (a) pleural cavity (left and right, divided by the
mediastinum)
– encloses: the lungs
– the membranes: visceral and parietal pleura
• (b) pericardial cavity
– encloses: the heart
– The membranes: visceral and parietal pericardium

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Fig. 1-10b, p. 21
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Fig. 1-10a, p. 21
MEMBRANES -flat sheets of pliable tissue that cover
or line the body or a parts of the body.

A. MUCOUS MEMBRANE (MUCOSA)-lines a body

cavity that opens directly to the outside (digestive,
respiratory etc.)

Functions:
Protection-tight junctions between cells prevent leakage
and is hard for microbes to penetrate

Secrete mucus, which keeps the membrane moist and

provides lubrication

Cells secretes digestive enzymes and are the site of

absorption of digested micronutrients. 79
B. SEROUS MEMBRANES (serosa)-lines a body
cavity that does not open directly to the outside
and covers organs in the cavity

• Cover both the walls of internal cavities (parietal

layer) and the visceral organs themselves
(visceral layer), and b/n the two layers is the
cavity

• Serous membrane secrete a watery lubricant in to

the cavity that reduces friction, allowing organs
to expand and contract freely.
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Serous membranes include:
1. Pleura is the serous membrane enclosing the
lung
a. Parietal pleura lines wall of the cavity
b. Visceral pleura covers organs surface
2. Peritoneum is the serous membrane of the

abdominal cavity
a. Parietal peritoneum lines the abdominal wall
internally
b. Visceral peritoneum covers abdominal organs
3. Pericardium is the membrane that covers the
heart 81
D. SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES -line the cavities of
freely movable joints. They secrete synovial fluid
which lubricates the joint and nourished the
cartilage.

C. CUTANEOUS MEMBRANE- outer limiting

membrane of the body, which is the skin

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 Body parts (Regions)
The body can generally be described to have:
1.Axial body part: - It is the part of the body
near the axis of the body.
– This includes head, neck, and trunk

2.Appendicular body part: - It is the part of the

body out of the axis line.
 This includes the upper and lower limbs.

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 Approaches to study anatomy
Systemic anatomy
• Studies anatomy by organizing structures of
related function in to d/t systems of the body

• About 11 specific systems are functioning

together in the human body.
Eg. Urinary system
Skeletal system
Nervous system…
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 Approaches to study anatomy
Regional anatomy
• Studies anatomy by dividing the body in to certain
related parts.

• Deals several systems located in specific region of

the body
Eg. Upper limb Pelvis & perineum
Lower limb Thorax
Head & neck CNS
Abdomen 85
 Approaches to study anatomy
Applied (clinical) anatomy
• Correlation of anatomical knowledge to the
diagnosis and treatment of diseases as in
surgical procedure

• Emphasis is given to structures of clinical

importance

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Levels of Structural Organization of
Human Body
Chemical level to Organismic level

Read!

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 Some examples of each levels of structural
organization of the body.
Subatomic Particles – electrons, protons, neutrons
Atom – hydrogen atom, lithium atom
Molecule – water molecule, glucose molecule
Macromolecule – protein molecule, DNA molecule
Organelle – mitochondrion, Golgi apparatus, nucleus
Cell – muscle cell, nerve cell
Tissue – simple squamous epithelium, loose connective
tissue
Organ – skin, femur, heart, kidney
Organ System – skeletal system, digestive system
Organism - human
 The human body is composed of 11 systems
and the special sense organs
• Integumentary system
• Skeletal system
• Muscular system
• Nervous system
• Endocrine system
• Cardivascular system
• Lymphatic system
• Digestive system
• Respiratory system
• Urinary system
• Reproductive system
• Special sense organs 89
 The Integumentary System
• Composed of the skin and its appendages
( sweat and oil glands, hair, and nails).

• Accounts for 7% of the body’s weight.

• Varies in thickness from 1.5 to 4.0 mm.

• Composed of 2 distinct layers.

• Epidermis and Dermis
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 The skin functions

Temperature regulation
Excretion = sweat
Sensation (general sense organ)
Synthesis = vitamin D .
Major role is protection, eg. from pathogens
Prevents dehydration.

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 Epidermis
• Outermost layer.
• Composed mostly of keratinized stratified
squamous epithelium.
• Contains 4 distinct cell types and 4 to 5
distinct layers.

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 Cell Types of the Epidermis
• Keratinocytes— produce keratin, a fibrous
protein that give the epidermis its protective
properties.
– These cells are tightly connected by desmosomes.
– Arise from the stratum basale and undergo continuous
mitosis.
– Are pushed upward and continuously become more
keratinized. Those on the surface of the skin are dead.
Millions rub off per day.

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 Cell Types of the Epidermis
Melanocytes— synthesize melanin.
• Located at the deepest layer of the epidermis.
• The melanin is transferred to the keratocytes.
• Protects against UV damage.

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Albino

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 Cell Types of the Epidermis

Langerhans’ cells— arise from the bone marrow.

• Act as macrophages that activate the immune
system.
Merkel cells— present at the junction of the
epidermis and dermis. Are tactile receptor cells
associated with sensory nerve endings.

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 Layers of the Epidermis
• Thick skin (on palms, fingertips, soles) has 5
strata.
• Thin skin has only 4. The stratum lucidum is
absent and the other layers are visibly thinner.
1. Stratum Basale— deepest layer.
 Attached to the dermis.
 Sometimes called the stratum germinativum
because of the constant mitosis occurs there.
 Made of a single row of keratinocytes.

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 Layers of the Epidermis
2. Stratum Spinosum— Several layers thick.
Consist mainly of keratin like filaments
 Melanin granules and Langerhan’s cells are abundant
in this layer.

3. Stratum Granulosum— 3-5 cell layers thick.

Keratinocytes become more flattened and the
cells contain more keratin and lamellated
granules that are filled with keratohyalin,a
chemical precursor to keratin

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 Layers of the Epidermis
4. Stratum Lucidum— thin layer of dead
keratinocytes. The nuclei, organelles, and cell
membranes are no longer visible in the cells of the
stratum lucidum, and so histologically this layer
appears clear. It exists only in the lips and in the
thickened skin of the soles and palms.

5. Stratum Corneum— Outermost layer. 20-30

cell layers thick. Cells have thick cell membranes
and a great deal of keratin. Cells are referred to as
cornified. 101
• When first wearing new shoes, the skin of the
foot may be subject to friction.  This will
separate layers of Epidermis, or separate the
Epidermis from the Dermis, and tissue fluid
may collect, causing a BLISTER.

• Friction may lead to a protective thickening of

the cells as wearing new shoes known as a
callus.
– If the skin is subjected to pressure, the rate of
mitosis will increase and create a thicker
Epidermis
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 The Dermis
• Made mostly of connective tissue.
• Richly innervated and vascularized.
• Contains the hair follicles, sweat glands, oil
glands, lymphatic vessels, arrector pili muscle
and many sensory receptors.

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 The Dermis
• Consists of 2 layers.
1. Papillary layer
• Loose connective tissue, heavily vascularized.
Contains the peg-like dermal papillae, capillary
loops, and Meissner’s corpuscles (detect light
motion against skin surface).
– In palms and sole, contain the dermal ridges
– interdigitations formed b/n dermal ridges and
epidermal ridges or grooves cause formation of
fingerprints.
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 Reticular layer

 Is formed by a dense layer of interlacing

collagen and elastic fibers

These fibers provide skin tone (elasticity) and

account for the strength

The pattern of collagen fibers in a particular

region determines the characteristic tension lines
(cleavage lines- for Skin Incisions ) and wrinkle
lines in the skin
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Cleavage line
(tension line)

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 Stretch Marks in Skin
• The collagen and elastic fibers in the dermis
form a tough, flexible meshwork of tissue
• Considerable distend (as in pregnancy) can
result in damage to the collagen fibers in the
dermis
• As a result Bands of thin wrinkled skin, initially
red, become purple and later white is Stretch
marks.
• Appear on the abdomen, buttocks, thighs, and
breasts during pregnancy ,and in obese

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Stretch mark

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Aging of the skin results in a loss of elasticity and
the appearance of wrinkles

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 The subcutaneous tissue
(superficial fascia = hypodermis)

• Is loose connective tissue and fatty layer

between the dermis and underlying deep fascia

• the subcutaneous tissue contains neurovascular

structures distributed to the skin and deepest
part of sweat gland

• It provides for most of the body's fat storage, so

its thickness varies amoung individuals due to
nutritional state .
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Superficial fascia

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 The deep fascia
• Is a dense, organized connective tissue layer,
devoid of fat

• that envelopes most of the body structures deep

to the skin and subcutaneous tissue

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• A

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