Respiratory

Respiratory System
System
 Respiratory
Respiratory Surfaces
Surfaces
Respiratory Surfaces
– part of animal body where gas exchange occurs
– are always moist
– the movement of gases across respiratory surfaces takes
place by diffusion
 Respiratory Organs
Respiratory Organs of
of Invertebrates
Invertebrates
I. Gills
• complex outgrowths containing blood vessels covered by a thin epithelial
layer
• occur in a variety of animal groups
• may be internal (as in crabs and fish) or external to the body (as in some
amphibians)
 Basic Gill
Basic Gill Structure
Structure
• Operculum
– Bony plate that protects gills
– attached in such way that it
can be easily opened and
closed frequently

Operculum

Buccal Floor
Buccal Cavity (Mouth)
 Basic Gill
Basic Gill Structure
Structure
• Gill Arch
– a bony structure that is
oriented vertically on the side
of a fish, just behind its head
– provides the support to hold a
number of comb-like
structures called gill filaments
 Basic Gill
Basic Gill Structure
Structure
• Gill Filaments
— extend out horizontally from
the gill arches.
— each gill filament produces
many branches called primary
lamellae and the primary
lamellae branch out into tiny
secondary lamellae.
 Basic Gill
Basic Gill Structure
Structure
• Gill Raker
– prevents clogging of gill
filaments by unwanted
material present in the water
 Basic Gill
Basic Gill Structure
Structure
• Gill Lamella
— blood vessels packed
between membranes that
facilitate the intake of
oxygen into the blood
 How DO
How DO gills
gills work?
work?
• As water passes over or is pumped over the gills, oxygen is absorbed
through the walls of the secondary lamellae and CO2 is released.

• As water flows over the lamellae, oxygen is absorbed into the blood and
then the blood pumped around the body by the fish’s heart.
 Importance of
Importance of gills
gills
• increase the surface area for gas exchange
• very efficient at removing oxygen from water
 Mechanisms
Mechanisms of
of Breathing
Breathing
• Ventilation
— maintains the partial pressure gradients of O2 and CO2 across the gill that are necessary
for gas exchange.
 Partial Pressure
– pressure exerted by a particular gas in a mixture of gases

• Gas exchange
– the uptake of molecular O2 from the environment and the discharge of CO2 to the
environment.
 Cellular Respiration
– involves the breakdown of organic molecules to produce ATP.
 Ventilation
• The fish opens its mouth and lowers its buccal floor, increasing
the volume in the mouth and so decreasing the pressure
• Water rushes in
• The fish closes its mouth and raises its buccal floor
• This decreases the volume, and so increases the pressure in the
mouth
• Water is forced over the gills and out of the operculum
• Gas exchange happens in the gills
 Gas Exchange
• Capillaries and lamellae have thin walls. O2 and CO2 diffuse
through easily.
• Gases move by diffusion.
• O2 into capillaries
• CO2 into water
 Mechanisms
Mechanisms of
of Breathing
Breathing
• Concurrent exchange
– The exchange of substance or heat between two fluids flowing in the same directions.
– This is not how fishes breathe.

• Countercurrent exchange
— the exchange of a substance or heat between two fluids flowing in opposite directions
— contribute to temperature regulation and to the functioning of the mammalian kidney
— This is the right process of how fishes breathe.
 Concurrent flow
•In a concurrent
(parallel)flow system, blood
and water flow in the same
direction.

•O2 concentration will

reach an equilibrium.
 CounterCurrent Exchange
• The blood flow in the capillaries is
opposite to the flow of water over
the gills.

• This means that the blood in the

capillary is always meeting new
water with a full load of oxygen.

• Countercurrent exchange of water

flow and bloodstream maintains
concentration gradients for
diffusion.
How do
How do they
they breathe?
breathe?
 How do
How do sharks
sharks breathe?
breathe?
• RAM ventilation
– Production of respiratory flow in some fish in which the mouth is
opened during swimming, such that water flows through the mouth and
across the gills.

• Buccal Pumping
– Named for buccal or cheel, muscles that pull water into the mouth and
over the gills
– Only the oldest sharks do this as well as sharks that are dorsoventrally
flattened
 BUT WHAT
BUT WHAT ABOUT
ABOUT THEM?!
THEM?!
• Whale sharks • Platypuses
 Respiratory Organs
Respiratory Organs of
of Invertebrates
Invertebrates

II. Tracheal System

• complex network of tubes that delivers oxygen-
containing air to every cell of the body.
• air enters the insect's body through valve-like openings in
the exoskeleton
Tracheal System
Tracheal System Structure
Structure
 Tracheal System
Tracheal System Structure
Structure
• Spiracles
– valve-like openings in the
exoskeleton where air
enters
– located laterally along the
thorax and abdomen of
most insects – usually one
pair of spiracles per body
segment
 Types of Spiracles
• Simple or non-atriate • Atriate with lip closure
– Opening with no lip closure — Sit like apparatus with two
or filter chamber movable valve/lips
• Atriate with filter-apparatus
– Atrium is lined with tiny
hairs
 Tracheal System
Tracheal System Structure
Structure
• Trachea
– Larger tubes of the tracheal
system
– Consists of epithelial cells
( ectotrachea) and cuticular
lining called intima.
 Taenidia
- Helical folds of
cuticular lining
 Tracheal System
Tracheal System Structure
Structure
• Tracheoles
– provides a thin, moist interface
for the exchange of gasses
between atmospheric air and a
living cell
• Tracheoblast
– Branches of tracheae end in
polygonal cells
• Airsacs
– Balloon-like structures that acts
as oxygen reservoir
– Provide buoyancy to flying in
aquatic insects
 Respiration in
Respiration in aquatic
aquatic insects
insects
• Closed tracheal system
– In some aquatic and many endoparasitic larvae spiracles are absent and the
tracheae divide peripherally to form a network.

• Open tracheal system

 Air store
• air bubble stored beneath wings acts as physical gill, e.g. water bug.
 Respiratory siphon
• aquatic insects make frequent visits to water to obtain oxygen
 Hydrofuge hairs
• Enable the larva to stay in the water surface and expose their spiracles to the air
 How DOes
How DOes the
the tracheal
tracheal system
system work?
work?
• Air enters the system via
spiracles and move into the
main trachea that continue to
branch, getting smaller each
time, with tracheoles being the
smallest into the insect cells.

• Tracheole ends make direct

contact with the body cell,
oxygen diffuses from
tracheoles across the
membrane.
 Importance of
Importance of tracheal
tracheal system
system
• It gives some degree of buoyancy in aquatic insects
• Act as connective tissues and binds the organs together
• Air sacs allow growth of the body
• Air sacs also helps as heat insulators and to maintain body temperature
• Tracheoles involves in light emission in fire flies
ANATOMY OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 MAIN ORGANS:
• NOSE
• PHARYNX
• LARYNX
• TRACHEA
• PRIMARY BRONCHI
• LUNGS:
– BRONCHIOLES
– ALVEOLI
These organs are subdivided into two:
UPPER RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Nose- phraynx – larynx

LOWER RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Respiratory organ of the thorax (thoracic cavity)
Major portion is inside the lungs
 1.NOSE
Separated from mouth by hard and soft palate
• Each nasal cavity is divided into 3 passageways by turbinates
-creates narrow turbulent passageways to insure that all air makes
contact with mucous membranes

 Lined with ciliated mucous membranes containing goblet cells

 1. NOSE
 Remove bacteria, debris and
particles
 Warms and moisturizes air
entering lungs
 Also contains receptors for
smell
 2. PHARYNX (THROAT)
• From base of skull junction with esophagus and
trachea
• 5’’ long
• Made muscle lined with mucous membrane
• Junction between digestive and respiratory
systems
 Divided into three regions:
A. NASOPHARYNX
Behind nose to level of soft palate
B. OROPHRAYNX
Behind the mouth
From soft palate to level of hyoid bone
C. LARYNHOPHARYNX
From hyoid bone to esophagus (larynx)
 3.LARYNX
• Enlarged beginning portion of trachea
• Composed of cartilage and muscles
• Opening into larynx = glottis
– Prevent food from entering lower respiratory
system
– Sound- speech, singing etc.
 3. LARYNX
9 cartilages (3 large, 6 small)
– Epiglottis – covers glottis when swallowing
– Thyroid cartilage – largest cartilage of larynx
testosterone stimulates growth of the laryngeal
prominence so it becomes larger in males than in
females = adam’s apple
– Circoid cartilage – smaller below thyroid which connects
the larynx to trachea
 3. LARYNX
• Two muscular folds within larynx:
Upper: (false) vocal cords
close glottis during swallowing
Lower: (true) vocal cords

Wall of larynx are very muscular

- some of these muscles help control these two pairs of folds
BRONCHIOLES AND ALVEOLI

Within your lungs, the main airways

(bronchi) branch off into smaller and
smaller passageways, the smallest of
which are called bronchioles. At the end
of the bronchioles are tiny air sacs
(alveoli).
The bronchioles or bronchioli are the
passageways by which air passes through the
nose or mouth to the alveoli(air sacs) of the
lungs, in which branches no longer contain
cartilage or glands in their submucosa.

The bronchioles serve as a transition between

the large cartilage supported bronchi that
enter the lungs and the tiny alveolar ducts that
connect directly to the alveoli. The bronchioles
carry oxygen rich air into the lungs and carry
carbon dioxide rich air out of the lungs,
thereby aiding in the processes of breathing
and respiration. .(function)
A pulmonary lobule is the portion of the lung
ventilated by one bronchiole. Bronchioles are
approximately 1 mm or less in diameter and
their walls consist of ciliated cuboidal epithelium
and a layer of smooth muscles.

Bronchioles divide into even smaller bronchioles,

called terminal, which are 0.5 mm or less in
diameter.

Terminal bronchioles in turn divide into smaller

respiratory bronchioles which divide into
alveolar ducts. Terminal bronchioles mark the
end of the conducting division of air flow in the
respiratory system while respiratory bronchioles
are the beginning of the respiratory division
where gas exchange takes place.
Function of alveoli
The function of the alveoli is to get
oxygen into the blood stream for
transport to the tissues, and to remove
carbon dioxide from the blood stream.

The pulmonary alveoli are the terminal

ends of the respiratory tree that
outcrop from either alveolar sacs or
alveolar ducts; both are sites of gas
exchange.

The alveolar membrane is the gas-
exchange surface.
The alveoli consist of an epithelial layer
and an extracellular matrix surrounded
by capillaries.
At the end of each duct are approximately 100 alveolar
sacs, each containing 20 to 30 alveoli that are 200 to
300 µm in diameter.
Each alveolar membrane is one cell thick and is in direct
contact with capillaries that are also one cell thick.
There are about 600 million alveoli in the lungs, with a
total surface area of about 75 m2.
The alveoli are located in the respiratory zone of the
lungs, at the distal termination of the alveolar ducts.
These air sacs are at the end points of the respiratory
tract.

There are approximately 700 million alveoli in the

lungs, covering a total surface area of about 70 m 2,
which is a considerably larger surface area relative to
volume. The large surface area makes gas exchange
with the bloodstream more efficient.

The alveoli are highly elastic, so the alveoli can

stretch as they are filled with air during inhalation.
They then spring back during exhalation in order to
expel the carbon-dioxide-rich air.
MECHANISMS OF BREATHING 
 PULMONARY VENTILATION
• We move ~500 ml of air in and out of the lungs with
each breath
• Involves moving air down a pressure gradient

Gases travel from area of high

pressure to an area of low pressure
 BREATHING
INSPIRATION EXPIRATION

• Inhalation • Breathing
• Breathing in out of the
of the air loaded
oxygen-rich with carbon
air from dioxide
outside
 INSPIRATION
Diaphragm muscle contracts and
flattens (downward)
Intercostal muscle between the ribs
pull them upward and outward
Chest expands
Volume of thoracic cavity increases
Decreased pulmonary pressure
Rushing in of external air through the
trachea into the lungs
The “work” required for normal breathing is ~1-2%
of body’s total energy expenditure

During heavy exercise that may increase to 15% of

energy expended
 EXPIRATION
• Pressure in the
• Ribs are lowered by the intercostal lungs is higher
muscles than the
• Diaphragm becomes raised to atmospheric
resume its original position pressure and air
rushes out of
the lungs
• Size of thoracic cavity is through the
reduced and lungs become trachea and
compressed nose
 PNEUMOTHORAX
Opening in chest cavity
eliminates pressure differential
causes lungs to collapse
 SURFACE TENSION
also plays an important role in keeping the lungs inflated

Outer surface of lungs and inner surface of alveoli are covered with thin film of water
Water has a high surface tension (very “sticky”) on outer surface of lungs:
- visceral pleura tends to stick
to parietal pleura

creates slight negative pressure

Helps to inflate during inspiration
on inside of alveoli:
- tends to cause the alveoli to collapse upon themselves

Counteracted by:
a. lungs never completely deflated;
always contain some air
b. secrete surfactant
reduces surface tension in alveoli
CONTROL OF BREATHING
 CENTRAL CONTROLLER
Breathing is mainly controlled at the
level of brainstem. The normal
automatic and periodic nature of
breathing is triggered and controlled
by the respiratory centers located in
the pons and medulla.
 1. MEDULLARLY RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
• The rhythmic cycle of breathing originates in the medulla.
Higher brain centers (voluntary control), systemic
receptors, and reflexes modify the medulla's output.
• The medulla does contain several widely dispersed groups
of respiratory-related neurons that form:
a. dorsal respiratory groups
b. ventral respiratory groups
 A. DORSAL RESPIRATORY GROUP (DRG)
 Composed mainly of inspiratory neurons located bilaterally in the
medulla, the DRG controls the basic rhythm of breathing by
triggering inspiratory impulses.
 These neurons send impulses to the motor nerves of diaphragm
and external intercostal muscles.
 Input modifies the breathing pattern.
B. VENTRAL RESPIRATORY GROUP(VRG)
 Contain both inspiratory and expiratory neurons
located bilaterally in the medulla and primarily active in
exercise and stress.
 VRG sends inspiratory impulses to
 Laryngeal and pharyngeal muscles
 Diaphragm and external intercostals
 Other VRG neurons send expiratory signals to
abdominal muscles and internal intercostals
2. PONTINE RESPIRATORY
CENTERS
The pons modifies the output of medullary
centers.
Two pontine centers are the
a. apneustic
b. pneumotaxic.
 A. APNEUSTIC CENTER

• Stimulates the inspiratory neurons of the DRG and VRG.

• Its function only identified by cutting connection to
medullary centers
• Over stimulation from the apneustic center results in
apneustic breathing which is characterized by long
gasping inspirations interrupted by occasional
expirations.
 B. PNEUMOTAXIC CENTER
• Sends inhibitory signals to the inspiratory center
of the medulla
• Controls "switch-off," so controls inspiratory time.
• The two centers in pons insure a smooth transition
between inspiration and expiration
• Helps maintain ryhtmicity of breathing when
connection between medulla and pons are cut
breathing becomes abnormal
- gasps
SENSORS

1. MECHANORECEPTORS
2. CHEMORECEPTORS
 1. MECHANORECEPTORS
• The receptors are placed on the walls of the bronchi and bronchioles of the lung
and the main function of these receptors is to prevent the overinflation of the
lungs. Inflation of the lungs activates these receptors and activation of the
stretch receptors in turn inhibits the neurones in inspiratory center via vagus
nerve. When expiration starts activation of the stretch receptors gradually ceases
allowing neurones in the inspiratory neurones become active again. This
phenomenon is called Hering-Breuer Reflex. It is particularly important for
infants. In adults it is functional only during exercise when the tidal volume is
larger than normal.
 CHEMORECEPTORS
• A chemoreceptor, also known as chemosensor, is a sensory receptor that
transduces a chemical signal into an action potential. The action potential is
sent along nerve pathways to parts of the brain, which are the integrating
centers for this type of feedback. There are many types of chemoreceptors in
the body, but only a few of them are involved in respiration.
• The respiratory chemoreceptors work by sensing the pH of their environment
through the concentration of hydrogen ions. Because most carbon dioxide is
converted to carbonic acid (and bicarbonate ) in the bloodstream,
chemoreceptors are able to use blood pH as a way to measure the carbon
dioxide levels of the bloodstream.
• The main chemoreceptors involved in respiratory feedback are:
I. Central chemoreceptors: These are located on the ventrolateral surface of
medulla oblongata and detect changes in the pH of spinal fluid. They can be
desensitized over time from chronic hypoxia (oxygen deficiency) and
increased carbon dioxide.
II. Peripheral chemoreceptors: These include the aortic body, which detects
changes in blood oxygen and carbon dioxide, but not pH, and the carotid
body which detects all three. They do not desensitize, and have less of an
impact on the respiratory rate compared to the central chemoreceptors.
Consider a case in which a person is hyperventilating from an
anxiety attack. Their increased ventilation rate will remove too much
carbon dioxide from their body. Without that carbon dioxide, there
will be less carbonic acid in blood, so the concentration of hydrogen
ions decreases and the pH of the blood rises, causing alkalosis.

In response, the chemoreceptors detect this change, and send a

signal to the medulla, which signals the respiratory muscles to
decrease the ventilation rate so carbon dioxide levels and pH can
return to normal levels.
Respiratory feedback: The chemoreceptors
are the sensors for blood pH, the medulla
and pons form the integrating center, and
the respiratory muscles are the effector.
GAS
EXCHANGE
and
TRANSPORT
Gas Exchange
Gas exchange is the delivery of oxygen from the lungs to the
bloodstream, and the elimination of carbon dioxide from the
bloodstream to the lungs. It occurs in the lungs between the alveoli
and a network of tiny blood vessels called capillaries, which are
located in the walls of the alveoli.

Gas Transport
The transport by the blood of oxygen from the site of external
respiration to cells where it is needed for aerobic respiration see
respiration, aerobic, this frequently involving a respiratory pigment,
and the transport away from the respiring cells of any carbon
dioxide produced

Cell Respiration
This production of ATP at the cellular level (mitochondria). Aerobic
Respiration uses oxygen, whereas Anaerobic does not
SINGLE-CELLED organisms change gases directly across
their cell membrane. However the slow diffusion rate
of oxygen relative to carbon dioxide limits the size of
single celled organisms. Simple animals that lack
specialized exchange surfaces have flattened, tubular
or thin shaped body plans.
Large animals cannot maintain gas exchange by diffusion
across their outer surface. They developed a variety of
respiratory surfaces that all increase the surface area
exchange, thus allowing for larger bodies. A respiratory
surface covered with thin, moist epithelial cells that allow
oxygen and carbon dioxide to exchange. Those gases can
only cross cell membranes when they are dissolved in
water or an aqueous solution, thus respiratory surfaces
must be moist.
 RESPIRATION

EXTERNAL RESPIRATION INTERNAL RESPIRATION

(BREATHING)A (CELL RESPIRATION)

AEROBIC ANAEROBIC
RESPIRATION RESPIRATION
INTERNAL RESPIRATION

A metabolic process which occurs in cells, involves

oxidation of organic molecules (food)
To produce energy ( in the form of ATP)

Gas exchange between blood and tissue fluid

• When blood reaches the tissue, cellular

respiration in cells causes the tissue fluid to
have a lower PO2 and a higher PCO2 than the
blood
• Thus oxygen diffuse from a high pressure in the
blood to a low pressure in the blood to a low
pressure in the tissue fluid and eventually in
the tissue cells
• Carbon dioxide diffuse from a high pressure in
the tissue fluid to a low pressure in the blood
Internal Respiration. Oxygen diffuses out of the
capillary and into cells, whereas carbon dioxide
diffuses out of cells and into the capillary.
Internal Respiration

Partial Pressure of Oxygen in Tissues = 40 mm Hg

Partial Pressure of Oxygen in Blood = 100 mm Hg

Partial Pressure of Carbon Dioxide in tissue is high

Partial Pressure of Carbon Dioxide in blood is Low

By the time blood returns to the heart, the partial pressure of

oxygen has returned to about 40 mm Hg, and the partial
pressure of carbon dioxide has returned to about 45 mm Hg.
The blood is then pumped back to the lungs to be oxygenated
once again during external respiration.
EXTERNAL RESPIRATION

The exchange of Respiratory gases (Oxygen and

Carbon Dioxide) between the body and the
environment

Gas exchange between air in lungs and blood

• If PO2 differs across a membrane- oxygen will

diffuse from a high to a low pressure
• If PCO2 differs across a membrane- carbon
dioxide will diffuse from a high to a low
pressure
• During Inspiration the alveoli fills with air
higher PO2 and lower PCO2 than blood
• Oxygen diffuse from alveoli into blood and
carbon dioxide diffuse from blood into alveoli
External Respiration, oxygen diffuses across the
respiratory membrane from the alveolus to the
capillary, whereas carbon dioxide diffuses out of
the capillary into the alveolus
External respiration

Partial Pressure of Oxygen in Partial Pressure of Carbon

Alveoli = 104 mm Hg Dioxide in Alveoli = 40 mm Hg

Partial Pressure of Oxygen in the Partial Pressure of Carbon

Blood of capillaries = 40 mm Hg Dioxide in the Blood of the
Capillaries = 45 mm HG
The difference is 64 mm Hg
Cellular Respiration

Is the process whereby an organisms uses

oxygen and food to produce energy (ATP) and 2
by products water and carbon dioxide

Glucose + O-----------ATP + H2O + CO2

Therefore gaseous exchange is necessary to get

oxygen for cellular respiration
Gas Exchange Process

It is performed automatically by the lungs

and respiratory system. How it works?

1. The air containing oxygen and other

gases, comes into the body through the
lungs

2. In the Lungs, the oxy gen is moved into

the blood stream and carried through the
body.

3. Red blood Cells collect the carbon

Dioxide and transport it back to the lungs,
where it leaves the body when we exhale.
For Gas Exchange to be efficient,
high concentration gradients must
be maintained in the alveoli

Breathing in increases the

concentration gradient of oxygen
between the alveoli and blood-so it
diffuses into the blood.

Breathing out removes CO2

between blood and alveolus- so CO2
will diffuse out
Alveoli are well adapted to gas
exchange

Alveoli increase the surface area

for gas exchange. They are million
in number, each with their own
network of capillaries- a rich
blood supply maintains a high
concentration gradient of O2 and
CO2

Membranes are very thin- both of

the alveoli and the capillaries, so
the diffusion path is short
Oxygen Transport in the Blood

The majority of oxygen molecules are carried from the lungs to the
body’s tissues by a specialized transport system, which relies on the
erythrocyte—the red blood cell. Erythrocytes contain a metalloprotein,
hemoglobin, which serves to bind oxygen molecules to the erythrocyte

Heme is the portion of hemoglobin that contains iron, and it is heme

that binds oxygen.

oxyhemoglobin (Hb–O2), which is formed when oxygen binds to

hemoglobin. Oxyhemoglobin is a bright red-colored molecule that
contributes to the bright red color of oxygenated blood.

Hb + O2 ↔ Hb − O2
In this formula, Hb represents reduced hemoglobin, that is, hemoglobin
that does not have oxygen bound to it.
Erythrocyte and Hemoglobin. Hemoglobin
consists of four subunits, each of which
contains one molecule of iron.
Function of Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is composed of subunits,
a protein structure that is referred to
as a quaternary structure. Each of the
four subunits that make up
hemoglobin is arranged in a ring-like
fashion, with an iron atom covalently
bound to the heme in the center of
each subunit. Binding of the first
oxygen molecule causes a
conformational change in
hemoglobin that allows the second
molecule of oxygen to bind more
readily.
Carbon Dioxide Transport in the Blood
Carbon dioxide is transported by three major mechanisms.
The first mechanism of carbon dioxide transport is by blood
plasma, as some carbon dioxide molecules dissolve in the
blood. The second mechanism is transport in the form of
bicarbonate (HCO3–), which also dissolves in plasma. The third
mechanism of carbon dioxide transport is similar to the
transport of oxygen by erythrocytes
Dissolved Carbon Dioxide

The dissolved carbon dioxide then travels in the bloodstream and when the blood reaches the
pulmonary capillaries, the dissolved carbon dioxide diffuses across the respiratory membrane
into the alveoli, where it is then exhaled during pulmonary ventilation.

Bicarbonate Buffer
 
A large fraction—about 70 percent—of the carbon dioxide molecules that diffuse into the
blood is transported to the lungs as bicarbonate. Most bicarbonate is produced in erythrocytes
after carbon dioxide diffuses into the capillaries, and subsequently into red blood cells.
Carbonic anhydrase (CA) causes carbon dioxide and water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3),
which dissociates into two ions: bicarbonate (HCO3–) and hydrogen (H+). The following formula
depicts this reaction:
CO2 + H2O CA ↔ H2CO3↔H+ + HCO3−
Carbaminohemoglobin
Carbon dioxide does not bind to iron as oxygen does; instead,
carbon dioxide binds amino acid moieties on the globin portions
of hemoglobin to form carbaminohemoglobin, which forms
when hemoglobin and carbon dioxide bind.
Respiratory Diseases
Bronchial Asthma
• Allergic reaction
• Excessive mucous secretion and constrictions
of bronchioles
Tuberculosis
• Tuberculosis formed to wall off bacterial
infection
• If infection is not controlled may invade more
lung tissue causing fibrosis
• Causes extensive destruction of lung tissue
Pneumonia
• More sever result of respiratory infection
• Bacterial or viral
• Alveoli fill with fluids