Water Resources

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 Water is vital natural
resources which covers 71% of
the Earth’s area. Majority
(97%) of the water is found in
the ocean which is considered
as saltwater and only 3% is
freshwater. About 69% of the
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freshwater is trapped in
icecaps and glaciers and 30%
is found underground.
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 Physical Properties of water

Physical Properties of Water. Pure water is a tasteless,

odorless liquid at standard temperature and pressure.
The transparent property of water is important for
aquatic photosynthetic plants because light can reach
them. ‘The polar nature of water brought about by the
difference in the electronegativity of oxygen and hydrogen
is associated with water’s high surface tension. The
capillary action of water which refers to the tendency of
water to move up a narrow tube against the force of
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gravity is an important property for vascular plants like

trees.
 Water is regarded as the “universal solvent” because it can
dissolve many types of substances. A substance that mixers well
and dissolves well in water is known as “hydrophilic” (hydro
means water, philic from philia means love). Water has low
electrical conductivity by high heat capacity and high heat of
vaporization. The two later properties are due to the intra and
intermolecular hydrogen bond. ‘The high heat capacity and heat
of vaporization allow water to moderate Earth’s climate by
buffering large fluctuations in temperature. Ice floats on water
because frozen water expands and becomes less dense which
allows water organisms to live inside a partly frozen pond.
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 Chemical Properties of water

Water can be split into hydrogen and Oxygen by

electrolysis. It has the ability to act as both an acid
(proton donor) as well as a base (proton acceptor). It
acts as a base to acids stronger than itself and acts a,
an acid to bases stronger than itself. This
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characteristic is known as amphoteric wherein water

molecule has the ability to react both as a base and
as an acid.
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 Surface water

Surface water is any

water that travels or is
stored on top of the
ground such as rivers,
lakes, streams, reservoirs,
and the oceans. Some of
the surface water sinks
into the ground and
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becomes ground water.

 Groundwater
Groundwater is any water that flows underground through
layers of sand, clay, rock, and gravel. It is considered the largest
reservoir of freshwater that is readily available to humans.
Groundwater stays cleaner than the water on the surface
because it stays underground. However, fertilizers and
insecticides used by farmers can contaminate the groundwater.
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Gas station is also a threat to groundwater because if there is

leak, gas can sink into the groundwater.
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 Running water
Running water is considered as an important source of fresh
water (non-saline) and the most important erosional agent
modifying the Earth’s surface. Earth’s water is constantly moving
among the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, the solid Earth, and the
biosphere. Most of the water that falls as precipitation returns to
the ocean by infiltration and runoff over the surface. Infiltration is
the process by which water is absorbed in the ground. Water that
is not absorbed in the soil will flow over the ground surfaces. This
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water is known as surface runoff. The amount of runoff depends

on the infiltration capacity which is the maximum rate at which
soil or other surface materials can absorb water. The factors
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affecting infiltration capacity include the intensity and duration of

rainfall.
 Two kinds of surface runoff

●Sheet flow
●Channel flow
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 Sheet flow refers to the water flowing over the surface
and not confined to depressions while Channel flow is
confined to long, trough-like depressions. The runoff
which is confined to channels is called stream.
Streams receive water from several sources, including
sheet flow, rain falling directly into stream channels,
water supplied by soil moisture and groundwater.
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Streams flow downhill to a lower elevation where they

empty into another stream, a lake, or the sea.
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 Stream Transport

The stream loads transported by the stream are sediment

dissolved in solution (dissolved load), sediment dissolved in
suspension (suspended load) and those sediment at the bottom
of the channel (bed load). The greatest part of the stream load is
the suspension load and much of the dissolved load is
contributed by groundwater. The bed load is usually the smallest
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portion of a stream’s load.

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 A stream’s ability to transport solid particles is based on the
capacity and competence. Stream capacity refers the maximum
load of solid particles a stream can carry while stream
competency refers to the maximum particle size a stream can
transport. Stream competence depends on stream velocity or
the speed of water in the stream.
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 Stream’s velocity is a measure of the downstream distance
traveled per unit of time. The factors that determine a stream’s
velocity are gradient ( lope of the stream channel), shape, size,
and roughness of the channel, and the stream discharge
(amount of water passing a given point per unit of time,
frequently measured in cubic feet per second). As the width,
depth, discharge and stream velocity increase, the gradient and
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roughness of a stream decrease the downstream Stream deposit

sediment when velocity slows and competence is reduced.
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 Meander
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 Stream Deposition.

Stream deposition is the process wherein the

sediments carried by the stream water is laid down
or dropped. There are different types of stream
deposits which include bars deposit, floodplain
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deposit, delta deposit and alluvian fan deposit.

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 Delta deposits

Delta deposits are sand-rich and often have a triangular shape

like the Greek letter delta, D. Floodplain deposits build
successive, horizontal layers of silt and clay that are deposited
directly adjacent to the stream and form a natural levee.
Alluvial fan is a large, fan-shaped pile of sediment that forms
where a stream emerges from a narrow mountain canyon.
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 Bar deposit

Bar deposit is a stream deposit consisting of sand of gravel

deposited in the center of the channel. Bars are formed when
the stream’s velocity or discharge decreases and its bed load is
dropped. A stream that has many bar deposits is called braided
stream which has many constantly changing stream channels
due to the large sediment loads they carry and deposit.
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Meandering streams are characterized by slow moving water

and have a single, sinuous channel with broadly looping curves
called meanders. They look muddy and carry silt and clay.
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 Floodplain

Floodplain is a flat valley floor produced by erosion

when a stream has cut its channel closer to base level.
Streams that flow upon floodplains often move in
sweeping bends called meanders. Meandering or
winding of the stream may result in the formation of
cutoff or oxbow lakes. Cutoff is a short channel
segments while oxbow lake is an abandoned bends.
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 Oxbow River
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Cutoff River
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 Stream Erosion

Stream erosion is the progressive removal of dissolved

substances and loose particles of soil and rock from the
stream. The two main sources of stream erosion are
hydraulic action and abrasion. Hydraulic action can cause
erosion by dragging water over the stream bed and bank
while abrasion occurs when exposed rock is worn and
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scraped by the impact of solid particles.

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 Drainage Basin and Pattern

Drainage basin which is also called watershed

refers to the total area of land drained by a stream
and all of its branches or tributaries. Drainage
basins are separated by imaginary lines called
drainage divides.
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 ● Drainage pattern which is formed by a stream and
all of its branches and tributaries are controlled by
the rock or sediment underlying the stream.
Different drainage patterns include dendritic,
radial, rectangular, and trellis.
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 ● Dendritic drainage is a treelike pattern that forms on rock of
sediment that easily erodes. This is the most common
drainage pattern.
● Radial drainage is like the spokes of a wheel. They form
around conical features which is common in volcanic terrains.
Rectangular drainage is angular of about 90° bends of
tributaries due to fractured bedrock which serves as pathways
for streams. This type of drainage pattern is common in
granitic or basaltic bedrock. Trellis drainage is formed by
short tributaries flowing from the adjacent ridges join the
main stream at nearly right angles.
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 Base Level.

The lower limit to which streams can erode is called base

level. The two general types of base levels are ultimate base
level and temporary or local base level. A stream could erode
its entire valley to very near sea level which is referred to as
ultimate base level. A local base level is formed when a stream
flows across particularly resistant rock that develops a
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waterfall.
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 Development of Stream Valley

Stream valley is formed from the erosion and transport of rock and
sediment by a stream. It is the result of downcutting wherein a
stream’s channel erodes directly downward. Stream valley widens
due to continuous downcutting, erosion and mass wasting.
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 Stream terraces are step-like benches that occur above
the stream bed and floodplain which are formed in
response to flooding or changes in base level. Some
stream terraces are remnants of older river sediments
that have since been eroded.
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 ● Incised meanders are steep-walled canyons that result
from the downcutting of a meandering stream,
increased vertical erosion, and decreased in lateral
erosion. Grand Canyon in USA is a good example of
incised meander.
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