Mineral

Resources
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Gelogic
Resources
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 ● The use of the earth’s resources has become increasingly sophisticated since
the time human being appeared on earth. There are two types of geologic
resources that humans use — mineral resources and energy resources. Mineral
resources include all useful rocks and minerals. These resources may either be
classified as nonmetallic and metallic. A nonmetallic resource is any useful rock or
mineral that does not have metallic properties. Examples are salt or sand and
gravel. Metallic resources are those that possess metallic properties such as
luster, ductility, and the ability to conduct electricity and heat. Examples are iron,
lead, copper, aluminum, silver, and gold. All mineral resources are nonrenewable.
Humans use them up at a much faster rate than natural processes create them.
However, many can be recycled.
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 ● Energy resources are those that are used as source of heat, light,
work, and data transmission. These are petroleum, coal, and
natural gas which are also called fossil fuels. They are called
fossil fuels because they are formed from the remains of plants
and animals. These energy resources, like mineral resources, are
nonrenewable. However, alternative energy resources, such as
solar, wind, and geothermal energy, are renewable.
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Mineral
Resources
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 ● The Philippines is rich in mineral resources. Its richness in mineral resources is
being attributed to its location at the western fringes of the so-called Pacific Ring
of Fire. This location is found to be loaded with mineral deposits. The different
internal processes such as volcanism and plate convergence caused the
deposition of minerals both the metallic and nonmetallic minerals. Among the
important metallic minerals found in abundance in various parts of the country
include gold, copper, iron, chromite, nickel, cobalt and platinum, while non-metallic
resources include sand and gravel, limestone, marble, clay, and other quarry
materials. The most abundant copper and gold producers in the Philippines are
found in the Baguio and Mankayan districts, province of Benguet and the Surigao-
Davao districts. and
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 ● According to Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), the
country ranked 5 as most mineralized country in the world. Mineral resources can be
divided into two major categories — Metallic and Nonmetallic. Both forms are
important to humans and are used in different ways. For instance metals are used for
making machines, sands and gravels for making roads and buildings, sand for
making computer chips, limestone and gypsum for making concrete, clays for making
ceramics, gold, silver, copper and aluminum for making electric circuits, and
diamonds and corundum for abrasives and jewelry. Mineral resources are non-
renewable natural resources which are considered as important raw materials for
various industries. These include metals such as iron, copper, and aluminum; and
non-metals like salt, gypsum, clay, sand, phosphates.
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 Minerals are deposited in or on the Earth’s crust in the
form of ore. ‘These valuable natural resources need to be
extracted and converted into useful raw material for industrial,
roads, cars, computers, fertilizers, etc. There is an increasing
demand for the Earth’s natural resources. This accelerates
the mining activity for minerals with accompanying
environmental consequences.
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Nonmetallic
Mineral
Resources
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 “
These mineral resources are those useful rocks and minerals that are not metallic such as
salt, building stones, sand, and gravel. They are not as impressive as silver, gold, or sulfides
but equally important and useful as metallic mineral resources. They are more abundant and
less expensive than metallic ore deposits. For example, mining sand and gravel may make
more money than mining gold. Sand and gravel are mined widely from shallow open pits.
‘This is used for highway construction, cement, and concrete. When reinforced with steel,
concrete is used to build roads, bridges and buildings. It is one of the basic building
materials. Well-sorted sand dune, beach, and glacial outwash deposits are the best sources for
sand and gravel. Many buildings are also faced with stones. Most stone is limestone or
granite. Limestone is also an important component of cement and is used to replenish lime in
farm soil. Glass is also produced from silica sand. Bentonite, a clay mineral, is known for its
ability to absorb water and is used in cement and cat litter. Volcanic material such as that in
cinder cones can also be a gravel source. Finely ground volcanic pumice is used as an
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abrasive
― Irene M. Pepperberg
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Metallic
Mineral
Resources
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 ● Geologists use the term ore to refer to metallic mineral deposits. Metallic ores occur
in every kind of rock and some varieties of soil. The metallic minerals are
concentrated into rich masses by igneous, hydrothermal or erosional and
weathering processes. One of the geologists task is to find new ore deposits.
Understanding the processes that concentrate metals to form ore is necessary for
exploring and discovering new ore deposits. Exploration is becoming progressively
more challenging as the ore deposits exposed at the surface are discovered and
mined. ‘There are four processes that geologists use in finding new ore deposits.
These are the magmatic processes, hydrothermal processes, sedimentary
processes, and weathering processes. All these processes, except the magmatic
processes, involve interactions between rocks and minerals of the geosphere with
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water from the hydrosphere.

 Magmatic processes occur deep within the crust. Magmatic processes form
mineral deposits as liquid magma solidifies to form an igneous rock. These
processes create metal ores as well as some gems and valuable sulfur
deposits. Metals such as chromium, platinum, nickel, copper, and iron can
precipitate as sulfide minerals jn a cooling body of magma. Magmatic deposits
result when the minerals settle to the bottom of the intrusive body and form
thin, high-grade layers.
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 ● Hydrothermal processes are probably responsible for the formation of more ore
deposits, and a larger total quantity of ore, than all other processes combined. To
form a hydrothermal ore deposit, hot water dissolves metals from rock or magma.
The metal bearing solutions then seep through cracks or through permeable rock
until they precipitate to form an ore deposit. Common types of hydrothermal
deposits are contact metamorphic, hydrothermal, disseminated, and hot springs
deposits. Contact metamorphic deposits result from hot solutions that migrate from
a cooling intrusion and deposit minerals in cracks in the surrounding rock.
Hydrothermal veins are also mineral deposits in faults and cracks but are not
necessarily related to an intrusive body. The fluid can be meteoric water that has
moved downward toward a heat source, been heated, and ascended, leaching
metals along its path. ‘The sulfides are later deposited a considerable distance
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from the heat source. Some of the richest gold and silver deposits in the world are
hydrothermal veins
 Disseminated deposits are those in which the metal is evenly distributed in
generally low concentrations throughout large masses of rock. An important
type of disseminated deposit is the porphyry copper deposit, in which copper
and molybdenum are found in porphyritic intrusive rocks. In sedimentary
processes, substances are concentrated by chemical precipitation from lake
or sea water. The term sedimentary mineral deposit is restricted to chemical
sedimentation, where minerals containing valuable substances are
precipitated directly out of water.
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 ● Weathering processes take place in environments with
high rainfall. ‘The presence of abundant amount of water
dissolves and removes most of the soluble ions from soil
and rocks near the earth’s surface. The insoluble ions in
the soil and rocks are left to from the residual ore deposits.
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 Types of Mineral
resources

05 ● In general, minerals are categorized into

three classes: fossil fuel, metallic and non-
metallic. Fuel minerals include coal,
petroleum or crude oil and natural gas
which are also referred to as fossil fuel.
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 ● Coal is a hard, black colored rock-like substance which is
made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and
varying amounts of sulfur. There are three main types of
coal: anthracite, bituminous and lignite. Because of the
high content of carbon, anthracite coal gives a higher
energy content. Lignite has the lowest carbon content.

● Coal is an abundant, affordable, easy to transport, store

and use mostly for power generation. It is extracted from
the Earth by various methods such as surface mining or
deep mining. Surface mining or strip mining is done on flat
land while deep mining requires digging shafts and
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tunnels.
 ● Coal is defined as a sedimentary rock composed predominantly of
solid organic materials with a greater or lesser proportion of mineral
matter. It is derived from the accumulation of plant remains in
sedimentary basins, and is altered to solid rock by heat and pressure
applied during the basin’s development. It has a natural dark brown to
black, graphite like appearance and is primarily used as a fuel. Humans
first use coal as fuels before using petroleum and natural gas because
coal is easily mined and can be burned without refining. According to
increasing rank, this is based on purity, hardness and heating value,
coal is classified into peat, lignite, subbituminous, bituminous and
anthracite.
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 Coal is a sought-after energy source. It has the largest reserve
and is often the cheapest of the fuel options. The coal can be
obtained by mining. Most coal is transported by trains to power
plants where it’s burned to make steam. The steam turns turbines,
which produce electricity. ‘The Philippines is largely a coal
consuming country with coal having the highest contribution to the
power generation. Local demand for coal is not limited to power
generation. The cement industry utilized coal to other industries
such as alcohol, sinter, rubber boots, paper and chemical
manufacturing, fertilizer production and smelting process
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 Crude oil or petroleum is a flammable liquid that consists of hydrocarbons. Oil is
usually recovered by drilling wells through the non-porous tock barrier that traps the
oil. The oil refining process separates crude oil into different hydrocarbons and
removes impurities such as sulfur, nitrogen, and heavy metals. This process involves
fractional distillation which is based from the difference in the boiling point of
hydrocarbons.
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 ● The lightest fractions are liquefied petroleum gases
(propane and butane) and the petrochemicals used to
make plastics, fabrics, and a wide array of consumer
products. Next fraction consists of gasoline, kerosene, and
diesel fuel. Heavier fractions are made into home heating
oil and fuel for ships and factories. Heaviest fractions are
converted into lubricants and waxes. The remaining part is
the asphalt. Heavy fractions can be converted into lighter
fractions through a process called “cracking.”
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 Petroleum is a naturally occurring,
flammable liquid found within rock
formations in the earth. _ It is made up
of a mixture of hydrocarbons and other
organic compounds. The hydrocarbons,
although varying widely depending on
location, are mainly alkanes,
cycloalkanes, and various aromatic
hydrocarbons. The organic compounds
may contain nitrogen, oxygen, and
sulfur, in addition to trace amounts of
metals, such as iron.
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 ● Petroleum is formed, in general, through the compression and heating of
organic materials over geologic time. It can be traced to the burial of
marine organisms, primarily prehistoric zooplankton and algae. It can be
found in the ground usually between layers of rock. It is pumped from
the ground as crude oil a sticky, viscous, dark liquid. It is then refined. A
refinery changes the oil into products like gasoline, jet fuel and diesel
fuel. During refining, the crude oil is treated chemically and heated under
pressure to break apart its large molecules. The mixture is then
separated in multistory distillation columns. Many petroleum products
are used to manufacture plastics, nylon, and other useful materials. It is
also burned in factories and power plants to make electricity. The oil is
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burned, which produces gases that turn a turbine to create electricity.

Petroleum is the most versatile of the fossil fuels.
 ● Natural gas is the gas component of coal and oil formation.
It consists mostly of methane which is highly flammable.
Natural gas has no odor and is lighter than air. Wells for
natural gas are drilled in underground reservoirs of porous
rock. ‘Then it is pumped to the processing station to
remove liquid hydrocarbons and other components. It can
be transported through pipelines. Natural gas can also be
liquefied through a complex process.
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 ● Natural gas is an energy resource that comes from rock or an oil reservoir when
crude oil is heated higher than 100°C during burial. It is mostly methane, which is a
simple chemical compound made up of carbon and hydrogen atoms. Natural gas is
lighter than air. It is usually found mixed with oil but it floats because it is also lighter
than petroleum.
● Natural gas is found near oil in the ground. Just like oil, it is pumped from wells that
tap into the source and send it to large pipelines. It is burned to produce heat, which
boils water, creating steam, which passes through a turbine to generate electricity. ‘
● The general term petroleum includes both natural gas and crude oil. Crude oil is a
liquid containing hydrocarbons that forms in organic or fossil-rich sediments and
rocks. The hydrogen and carbon in the oil comes from the breakdown of the organic
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material over time. Natural gas is a gas that contains hydrocarbons and that usually
occurs with crude oil.
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 Impacts of Mining Activities
● Mining and mineral-processing activities can modify
the environment in various ways
● Both underground mines and surface mines have
their own sets of associated impacts
● Safety, hazards, and water and air pollution should
not be overlooked
● Very stressful to the environment
○ Must be carefully planned
○ Must be safe to miners and their neighbors
○ Must be contained – water and air pollution is a
major problem
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 Underground Mines
● Generally hard to see where they are located

○ Area of disturbance is local

● Miners place the tunnels close to the ore
body to cut down on waste
● Once mines are closed they can be sealed
with the non-ore rock (waste rock)
● Surface collapse general limited and
controllable with modern mine reclamation
practices
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○ Old, abandoned, and forgotten mines are

still a problem
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 Surface Mines
● Quarrying extracts rock to be used either intact (building blocks or facing stone)
or crushed (cement-making and road bed)
● Open-pit
○ Mine a large ore body located near the surface
○ Permanent changes to local topography will occur
● Strip mining
○ Most ores occur in a layer that generally is parallel to the surface
○ The ore zone is overlain by vegetation, soil, non-ore rock that must be
removed
○ Spoils banks are designed to collect the waste rock
○ Current reclamation law requires that it be return to the pit and the original soil
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replaced
○ Expensive but vital
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Fig. 12.25
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 ● On Soil. Preparing the land for mining activities
requires that trees need to be cut down and
sometimes the whole forests are destroyed. Mining
activities can cause soil erosion, loss of soil fertility,
soil acidification and contamination. Exploration
activities related to mining require removal of
vegetation which makes the soil prone to erosion.
These expose rocks and minerals to wind and water
which can cause weathering and eventually lead to
soil degradation. Exposed sulfide minerals will react
with water to produce sulfuric acid. ‘This acid will drain
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from the mines will acidify the soil. This is also known
as soil drainage..
 ● ‘This is a type of pollution which reduces the pH of the soil.
Coals and sulfide-rich metal ores which include copper,
gold, lead and silver are the main cause of acid drainage.
Plants do not grow well in excessively acidic soil. Soil
erosion can destroy river banks, and changes how the
river flows. Toxins used in the extraction of minerals can
permanently pollute the land. This can affect the faming
activity of the community. When mining land is abandoned,
open-pit mining leaves behind large craters
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 On Air. Mining can affect the quality of the air because of the
dust produced in the mining process. When radioactive
elements are found in the ore, then radiation can be emitted.
Heavy metals can be released in the air by unsafe smelter
operations which can cause air pollution. Toxins are released
from the gold mining industry. Acid rain and smog are also
some side-effects of mining. Gaseous and toxic
contaminants as well as particulate matter such as dust from
mining operations can cause air pollution. This can adversely
affect the health conditions of workers in the mining sites
and residents near the area. In general, air pollution caused
by mining activities can cause illness related to respiratory
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tract such as emphysema.

 On Water. ‘The flow of sediments from mining
sites to nearby body of water can cause water
pollution. High concentration of chemicals such
as arsenic, sulfuric acid and mercury in water
can affect fisheries, water supply, and
irrigation. Mining companies use explosives in
their operation. Leftover chemical deposits
from explosives are usually toxic. This can
increase the salinity and even contaminate the
water. Some chemicals used in mining can
seep into the soil and contaminate the
groundwater. Cyanide and mercury are
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sometimes used in the extraction of minerals

which can permanently pollute the water.
 On Plants and Animals. Biodiversity is greatly
affected § by mining operations due to destruction of
the natural habitat of plants and animals. In mining
sites, vegetation is cleared for the construction of
buildings and roads, and then tunnels are dug to
obtain ore. Direct and indirect poisoning can also lead
to the loss of biodiversity in the affected area. Animals
can be poisoned directly by mine products and
residuals. Indirect poisoning occurs when toxic
chemicals contaminate water and crops. Heavy
metals such as lead in contaminated sites may
accumulate in plants which can enter the food chain if
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the plants are eaten by animals or humans.

 ● Activities involved in mining such as explosions, road
construction, transportation of the goods, and noise can
affect the ecosystems. Deep-sea mines can affect the
marine ecosystem because of the danger of eliminating
rare and potentially valuable organisms. Pits that mines
create could have been home to some animals. Toxins and
tailings that are discharged from the mines can affect the
health of the organisms in the ecosystem. Sometimes
mining can completely destroy ecosystems and destroy
the balance of nature.
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