Product specification

Dimensioning and tolerancing

It is impossible to make a perfect

component so when we design a part we
specify the acceptable range of features
that make-up the part.
 Chapter 2 Suppliment
DIMENSIONS, TOLERANCES, AND SURFACES

• Dimensions, Tolerances, and Related Attributes

• Surfaces
• ASME Y14.5 Form Geometry
• Effect of Manufacturing Processes

IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I -

Processes
 THE DESIGN PROCESS
Product Engineering

Design Process Design Process

Off-road bicycle that ... How can this be
1. Conceptualization accomplished?
2. Synthesis
3. Analysis 1. Clarification of the task
4. Evaluation 2. Conceptual design
5. Representation 3. Embodiment design
4. Detailed design

Functional requirement -> Design

Steps 1 & 2 Select material and properties, begin geometric

modeling (needs creativity, sketch is sufficient)
3 mathematical, engineering analysis
4 simulation, cost, physical model
5 formal drawing or modeling
 DESIGN REPRESENTATION

Design Engineering Manufac-

Representation turing

• Verbal
• Sketch
• Multi-view orthographic drawing (drafting)
• CAD drafting
• CAD 3D & surface model
• Solid model
• Feature based design

Requirement of the representation method

• precisely convey the design concept
• easy to use
A FREE-HAND SKETCH
Orthographic Projection
A FORMAL 3-VIEW DRAWING

0.9444"

4 holes 1/4" dia

around 2" dia , first
hole at 45°

±
2.000 0.001

A
 DESIGN DRAFTING

Y
top

f
Profile plane
b c d e

Horizont al I I I Z

h i side X
j
III IV

Front al plane
front

Third angle projection

Drafting in the third angle
INTERPRETING A DRAWING
 DESIGN DRAFTING

A
Partial view A

2.000±0.001

A-A
A

Cut off view and auxiliary view

Provide more local details

 DIMENSIONING

Requirements
1. Unambiguous Incomplete
dimensioning
2. Completeness
3. No redundancy
0.83 ' 0.98 ' 1.22 '

3.03 '

1.72 '
Redundant dimensioning
0.86 '

0.83 ' 1.22 '

3.03 '

Adequate dimensioning
 TOLERANCE

Dimensional tolerance - conventional

Geometric tolerance - modern
nominal dimension

1.00 +- 0.05 means a range 0.95 - 1.05

tolerance

+ 0.10 + 0.00
unilateral 0.95 - 0.00 1.05 - 0.10
bilateral 1.00 -+ 0.05
 TOLERANCE STACKING
1. Check that the tolerance & dimension specifications are
reasonable - for assembly.
2. Check there is no over or under specification.

"TOLERANCE IS ALWAYS ADDITIVE" why?

0.80 ' ±0.01 1.20 ' ±0.01

1.00 ' ±0.01

?
What is the expected dimension and tolerances?

d = 0.80 +1.00 + 1.20 = 3.00

t = ± (0.01 + 0.01 + 0.01) = ± 0.03

 TOLERANCE STACKING (ii)

0.80 ' ±0.01 ? 1.20 ' ±0.01

3.00 ' ±0.01

What is the expected dimension and tolerances?

d = 3.00 - 0.80 - 1.20 = 1.00

t = ± (0.01 + 0.01 + 0.01) = ± 0.03

 TOLERANCE STACKING (iii)

x
0.80 ' ±0.01 ? 1.20 ' ±0.01

3.00 ' ±0.01

Maximum x length = 3.01 - 0.79 - 1.19 = 1.03

Minimum x length = 2.99 - 0.81 - 1.21 = 0.97

Therefore x = 1.00 ± 0.03

 TOLERANCE GRAPH
d,t d,t
A d,t B C D E
d,t

G(N,d,t)
N: a set of reference lines, sequenced nodes
d: a set of dimensions, arcs
t: a set of tolerances, arcs

d : dimension between references i & j

ij
t : tolerance between references i & j
ij

Reference i is in front of reference j in the sequence.

 EXAMPLE TOLERANCE GRAPH

A B C D E

d,t d,t
A d,t B C D E
d,t

d
DE=d
DA+d =
AE –
d +
ADdAE
different properties
=–(d +
ABd +
BCd )+
CD dAE between d & t
tDE
=tAB
+tBC
+t +
CDtAE
 OVER SPECIFICATION
If one or more cycles can be detected in the graph, we say that the dimension
and tolerance are over specified.

d1 d2
A B C
d1,t1 d2,t2 d3

Redundant dimension
d3,t3
A B C t1 t2
A B C

t3

Over constraining tolerance

(impossible to satisfy) why?
 UNDER SPECIFICATION
When one or more nodes are disconnected from the graph, the
dimension or tolerance is under specified.

d1 d2
A B C D E
d3

A B C D E

C D is disconnected from the

rest of the graph.

No way to find dBC and dDE

 PROPERLY TOLERANCED

A B C D E

d,t d,t
A d,t B C D E
d,t

d
DE=d
DA+d =
AE –
d +
ADdAE

=–(d +
ABd +
BCd )+
CD dAE

tDE
=tAB
+tBC
+t +
CDtAE
 TOLERANCE ANALYSIS
For two or three dimensional tolerance analysis:

i. Only dimensional tolerance

Do one dimension at a time.

Decompose into X,Y,Z, three one dimensional problems.

ii. with geometric tolerance

? Don't have a good solution yet. Use simulation?

diamet er & t olerance

A circular tolerance zone, the size is influenced

t rue position by the diameter of the hole. The shape of the
hole is also defined by a geometric tolerance.
 3-D GEOMETRIC TOLERANCE
PROBLEMS

datum surface
datum
surface ±t

Reference
frame
perpendicularity
 TOLERANCE ASSIGNMENT

Tolerance is money

• Specify as large a tolerance as possible as long as functional and assembly

requirements can be satisfied.
(ref. Tuguchi, ElSayed, Hsiang, Quality Engineering in Production Systems,
McGraw Hill, 1989.)

Q u alit y
function Co s t

cost +t

-t d ( n o min al dim e n sio n)

Tolerance value Quality cost

 REASON OF HAVING TOLERANCE

• No manufacturing process is perfect.

• Nominal dimension (the "d" value) can not

be achieved exactly.

• Without tolerance we lose the control and

as a consequence cause functional or
assembly failure.
 EFFECTS OF TOLERANCE (I)
1. Functional constraints

e.g.
flow rate

d±t

Diameter of the tube affects the flow. What is the allowed

flow rate variation (tolerance)?
 EFFECTS OF TOLERANCE (II)
2. Assembly constraints
e.g. peg-in-a-hole dp How to maintain the
clearance?
dh

Compound fitting
The dimension of each
segment affects
others.
 RELATION BETWEEN
PRODUCT & PROCESS
TOLERANCES
• Machine uses the locators as the
reference. The distances from the
machine coordinate system to the
A locators are known.
±0.01 tolerances • The machining tolerance is measured
Design specifications from the locators.
• In order to achieve the 0.01
tolerances, the process tolerance
must be 0.005 or better.
Setup
locators • When multiple setups are used, the
± 0 .0 0 5 setup error need to be taken into
consideration.
± 0 .0 0 5
± 0 .0 0 5

Process tolerance
 TOLERANCE CHARTING
A method to allocate process tolerance and verify that the process sequence
and machine selection can satisfy the design tolerance.

st ock
b o un d a ry

± 0 .0 1 ± 0 .0 1

± 0 .0 1
Dim t ol
Not shown are
blue print 1 .0 0 .0 1 process tolerance
1 .0 0 .0 1 assignment and
3 .0 0 .0 1
balance
Op co d e
10
10 lat he
Operation produced tolerances:
sequence 10 lat he
12
process tol of 10 + process tol of 12
20
20 lat he process tol of 20 + process tol 22

20 lat he 22 process tol of 22 + setup tol

 PROBLEMS WITH DIMENSIONAL
TOLERANCE ALONE
As designed:

1 .0 0 ±0 .0 0 1

6 .0 0 ±0 .0 0 1

As manufactured:
1.0 0 1
Will you accept the part 1 .0 0 1
1.0 0 1
at right?

Problem is the control of

straightness.

How to eliminate the

ambiguity?
6 .0 0
 GEOMETRIC TOLERANCES
ANSI Y14.5M-1977 GD&T (ISO 1101, geometric tolerancing;
ISO 5458 positional tolerancing; ISO 5459 datums;
and others), ASME Y14.5 - 1994
FORM ORIENTATION
straightness perpendicularity
flatness Squareness
angularity
Circularity parallelism
roundness
cylindricity

LOCATION
concentricity
RUNOUT
circular runout true position
total runout
symmetry

PROFILE
profile
profile of a line
 DATUM &
FEATURE CONTROL FRAME
Datum: a reference plane, point, line, axis where usually a plane where you can
base your measurement.

A
Symbol:

Even a hole pattern can be used as datum.

Feature: specific component portions of a part and may include one or more
surfaces such as holes, faces, screw threads, profiles, or slots.

Feature Control Frame:

datum
// 0.005 M A
modifier
symbol tolerance value
 MODIFIERS

M Maximum material condition MMC assembly

Regardless of feature size RFS (implied unless specified)
L Least material condition LMC less frequently used
P Projected tolerance zone
O Diametrical tolerance zone maintain critical wall
thickness or critical
T Tangent plane location of features.
F Free state

MMC, RFS, LMC

MMC, RFS

RFS
 SOME TERMS

MMC : Maximum Material Condition

Smallest hole or largest peg (more material left on the part)
LMC : Least Material Condition
Largest hole or smallest peg (less material left on the part)

Virtual condition:
Collective effect of all tolerances specified on a feature.

Datum target points:

Specify on the drawing exactly where the datum contact points should be
located. Three for primary datum, two for secondary datum and one or
tertiary datum.
 DATUM REFERENCE FRAME
Three perfect planes used to locate the
Pr i m a r y imperfect part.
a. Three point contact on the primary
plane
b. two point contact on the secondary
plane
T
e
ia
y
r
rt

c. one point contact on the tertiary

plane
S e c o n d a ry

primary Secondary
C
Tertiary
O 0.001 M A B C
B

A
 STRAIGHTNESS
Tolerance zone between two straightness lines.

0.001 Value must be smaller than

the size tolerance.

1.000 '±0.002

Measured error Š 0.001

0.001
0.001

1.000 '±0.002

Design Meaning
 Dimensions and Tolerances
• In addition to mechanical and physical
properties, other factors that determine the
performance of a manufactured product
include:
– Dimensions - linear or angular sizes of a
component specified on the part drawing
– Tolerances- allowable variations from the specified
part dimensions that are permitted in
manufacturing
IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I -
Processes
 Surfaces
• Nominal surface - intended surface contour of
part, defined by lines in the engineering drawing
– The nominal surfaces appear as absolutely straight
lines, ideal circles, round holes, and other edges and
surfaces that are geometrically perfect
• Actual surfaces of a part are determined by the
manufacturing processes used to make it
– The variety of manufacturing processes result in wide
variations in surface characteristics

IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I -

Processes
 Why Surfaces are Important
• Aesthetic reasons
• Surfaces affect safety
• Friction and wear depend on surface
characteristics
• Surfaces affect mechanical and physical
properties
• Assembly of parts is affected by their surfaces
• Smooth surfaces make better electrical contacts

IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I -

Processes
 Surface Technology
• Concerned with:
– Defining the characteristics of a surface
– Surface texture
– Surface integrity
– Relationship between manufacturing processes
and characteristics of resulting surface

IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I -

Processes
Figure 5.2 ‑ A magnified cross‑section of a typical metallic part surface

IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I -

Processes
 Surface Texture
The topography and geometric features of the
surface
• When highly magnified, the surface is
anything but straight and smooth. It has
roughness, waviness, and flaws
• It also possesses a pattern and/or direction
resulting from the mechanical process that
produced it

IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I -

Processes
 Surface Integrity
Concerned with the definition, specification, and
control of the surface layers of a material (most
commonly metals) in manufacturing and subsequent
performance in service
• Manufacturing processes involve energy which alters
the part surface
• The altered layer may result from work hardening
(mechanical energy), or heating (thermal energy),
chemical treatment, or even electrical energy
• Surface integrity includes surface texture as well as
the altered layer beneath
IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I -
Processes
 Surface Texture
Repetitive and/or random deviations from the
nominal surface of an object

Figure 5.3 ‑ Surface texture features

IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I -

Processes
 Four Elements of Surface Texture
1. Roughness - small, finely‑spaced deviations
from nominal surface determined by material
characteristics and process that formed the
surface
2. Waviness - deviations of much larger spacing;
they occur due to work deflection, vibration,
heat treatment, and similar factors
– Roughness is superimposed on waviness

IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I -

Processes
3. Lay - predominant
direction or
pattern of the
surface texture

Figure 5.4 ‑ Possible

lays of a surface

IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I -

Processes
4.Flaws - irregularities that occur occasionally
on the surface
– Includes cracks, scratches, inclusions, and
similar defects in the surface
– Although some flaws relate to surface texture,
they also affect surface integrity

IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I -

Processes
 Surface Roughness and Surface Finish

Surface roughness - a measurable characteristic

based on roughness deviations
Surface finish - a more subjective term denoting
smoothness and general quality of a surface
• In popular usage, surface finish is often used
as a synonym for surface roughness
• Both terms are within the scope of surface
texture
IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I -
Processes
 Surface Roughness
Average of vertical deviations from nominal
surface over a specified surface length

Figure 5.5 ‑ Deviations from nominal surface used in

the two definitions of surface roughness

IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I -

Processes
 Surface Roughness Equation
Arithmetic average (AA) is generally used, based on
absolute values of deviations, and is referred to as
average roughness

Lm
y
Ra   dx
0 Lm

where Ra = average roughness; y = vertical deviation from

nominal surface (absolute value); and Lm = specified
distance over which the surface deviations are measured

IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I -

Processes
An Alternative Surface Roughness Equation

Approximation of previous equation is perhaps easier

to comprehend:
n
yi
Ra  
i 1 n

where Ra has the same meaning as above; yi =

vertical deviations (absolute value) identified by
subscript i; and n = number of deviations included
in Lm
IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I -
Processes
 Cutoff Length
• A problem with the Ra computation is that
waviness may get included
• To deal with this problem, a parameter called
the cutoff length is used as a filter to separate
waviness from roughness deviations
• Cutoff length is a sampling distance along the
surface. A sampling distance shorter than the
waviness width eliminates waviness deviations
and only includes roughness deviations
IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I -
Processes
 Figure 5.6 ‑ Surface texture symbols in engineering drawings:
(a) the symbol, and (b) symbol with identification labels
Values of Ra are given in microinches; units for other measures are given
in inches
Designers do not always specify all of the parameters on engineering
drawings

IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I -

Processes
 TRUE POSITION

Tolerance zone
Dimensional 0.022
tolerance

1.00 ±0.01

1.20
±0.01
O.80 ±0.02 Hole center tolerance zone
O 0.01 M A B

True position Tolerance zone

tolerance 0.01dia

1.00

B
A 1.20
HOLE TOLERANCE ZONE

Tolerance zone for dimensional toleranced

hole is not a circle. This causes some assembly
problems.

For a hole using true position tolerance

the tolerance zone is a circular zone.
 TOLERANCE VALUE MODIFICATION
O1.00 ±0.02
O0.01 M A B

Produced True Pos tol

1.00 hole size M L S
B 0.97 out of diametric tolerance
1.20 MMC 0.98 0.01 0.05 0.01
A
0.99 0.02 0.04 0.01
1.00 0.03 0.03 0.01
1.01 0.04 0.02 0.01
The default modifier for
true position is MMC. LMC 1.02 0.05 0.01 0.01
1.03 out of diametric tolerance

For M the allowable tolerance = specified tolerance + (produced hole

size - MMC hole size)
 MMC HOLE

LMC ho le
MMC ho le

ho le a xis t o le ra nc e zo ne

MMC p e g will fit in t he ho le ,

a xis m us t b e in t he t o le ra nce zo ne

Given the same peg (MMC peg), when the produced hole size is greater
than the MMC hole, the hole axis true position tolerance zone can be
enlarged by the amount of difference between the produced hole size
and the MMC hole size.
 PROJECTED TOLERANCE ZONE
Applied for threaded holes or press fit holes to ensure interchangeability
between parts. The height of the projected tolerance zone is the thickness
of the mating part.

.375 - 16 UNC - 2B
O .010 M A B C
.250 p

0 .0 1
Pro je c t e d t o le ra nce
0 .2 5 z o ne

Pro d uc e d p a rt
 Surface Integrity
• Surface texture alone does not completely describe
a surface
• There may be metallurgical changes in the altered
layer beneath the surface that can have a significant
effect on a material's mechanical properties
• Surface integrity is the study and control of this
subsurface layer and the changes in it that occur
during processing which may influence the
performance of the finished part or product

IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I -

Processes
 Surface Changes Caused by Processing
• Surface changes are caused by the application
of various forms of energy during processing
– Example: Mechanical energy is the most common
form in manufacturing. Processes include metal
forming (e.g., forging, extrusion), pressworking, and
machining
– Although primary function is to change geometry of
workpart, mechanical energy can also cause
residual stresses, work hardening, and cracks in the
surface layers
IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I -
Processes
 Surface Changes Caused by
Mechanical Energy
• Residual stresses in subsurface layer
• Cracks ‑ microscopic and macroscopic
• Laps, folds, or seams
• Voids or inclusions introduced mechanically
• Hardness variations (e.g., work hardening)

IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I -

Processes
 Surface Changes Caused by
Thermal Energy
• Metallurgical changes (recrystallization, grain
size changes, phase changes at surface)
• Redeposited or resolidified material (e.g.,
welding or casting)
• Heat‑affected zone in welding (includes some
of the metallurgical changes listed above)
• Hardness changes

IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I -

Processes
 Surface Changes Caused by
Chemical Energy
• Intergranular attack
• Chemical contamination
• Absorption of certain elements such as H and
Cl in metal surface
• Corrosion, pitting, and etching
• Dissolving of microconstituents
• Alloy depletion and resulting hardness
changes
IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I -
Processes
 Surface Changes Caused by
Electrical Energy
• Changes in conductivity and/or magnetism
• Craters resulting from short circuits during
certain electrical processing techniques

IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I -

Processes
 Tolerances and Manufacturing Processes

• Some manufacturing processes are inherently

more accurate than others
• Examples:
– Most machining processes are quite accurate,
capable of tolerances = 0.05 mm ( 0.002 in.) or
better
– Sand castings are generally inaccurate, and
tolerances of 10 to 20 times those used for
machined parts must be specified
IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I -
Processes
 Surfaces and Manufacturing Processes

• Some processes are inherently capable of

producing better surfaces than others
– In general, processing cost increases with
improvement in surface finish because additional
operations and more time are usually required to
obtain increasingly better surfaces
– Processes noted for providing superior finishes
include honing, lapping, polishing, and
superfinishing

IE 316 Manufacturing Engineering I -

Processes