DATA COLLECTION

METHOD : OBSERVATION
AND QUESTIONNAIRES
Ivana Elmadisa Samuel (191525228)
Jonatan Reginald Ang Jaya (201525668)
INTRODUCTION
 Observation is a useful and natural technique to collect data on actions and behavior
 Observation involves going into “the field” – the factory, the supermarket, the waiting room,
the office, or the trading room watching what workers, consumers, or day traders do, and
describing, analyzing, and interpreting what one has seen.
 Observational methods are best suited for research requiring non ‐self ‐report descriptive data
DEFINITION AND PURPOSE OF
OBSERVATION
 Observation concerns the planned watching, recording, analysis, and interpretation of
behavior, actions, or events
 four key dimensions that characterize the way observation is conducted:
(1) control
(2) whether the observer is a member of the group that is observed or not
(3) structure
(4) concealment of observation
FOUR KEY DIMENSIONS THAT
CHARACTERIZE THE TYPE OF OBSERVATION

Controlled versus Structured versus

Participant versus Concealed versus
uncontrolled unstructured
nonparticipant unconcealed
observational observational
observation observation
studies studies
CONTROLLED VERSUS UNCONTROLLED
OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES
 A distinction can be made between observation conducted in controlled (or artificial) versus
uncontrolled (or natural) settings
 Controlled observation occurs when observational research is carried out under carefully
arranged conditions
 Uncontrolled observation is an observational technique that makes no attempt to control,
manipulate, or influence the situation
PARTICIPANT VERSUS
NONPARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
 nonparticipant observation, the researcher is never directly involved in the actions of the
actors, but observes them from outside the actors’ visual horizon, for instance via a one ‐way
mirror or a camera.
 Participant observation is an approach that has frequently been used in case studies,
ethnographic studies, and grounded theory studies
 Spradley (1980) has developed a typology to describe a continuum in the degree of
participation of researchers.
- passive participation
- Moderate participation
- Active participation
- complete participant observation
STRUCTURED VERSUS UNSTRUCTURED
OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES
 a structured observational study is where the observer has a predetermined set of categories
of activities or phenomena planned to be studied.
 Structured observation is generally quantitative in nature
 In an unstructured observational study the observer will record practically everything that is
observed. Unstructured observational studies are claimed to be the hallmark of qualitative
research
 Unstructured observation may eventually lead to a set of tentative hypotheses that are tested
in subsequent research that is deductive in nature
CONCEALED VERSUS
UNCONCEALED OBSERVATION
 Concealment of observation relates to whether the members of the social group under study
are told that they are being investigated.
 A primary advantage of concealed observation is that the research subjects are not influenced
by the awareness that they are being observed
 Unconcealed observation is more obtrusive, perhaps upsetting the authenticity of the
behavior under study
 concealed observation raises ethical concerns since it may violate the principles of informed
consent, privacy, and confidentiality (Burgess  1989; Lauder  2003).
 There are no strict rules for assessing the ethicality of concealed observational research
TWO IMPORTANT APPROACHES
TO OBSERVATION

participant structured
observation observation
  A key characteristic of participant observation is that the researcher gathers data by
participating in the daily life of the group or organization under study.
 Participant observation combines the processes of participation and observation.

 Pure observation seeks to remove the researcher from the observed actions and
behavior; the researcher is never directly involved in the actions and behavior of the

PARTICIPAN group under study

 Pure participation has been described as “going native”; the researcher becomes so
involved with the group under study that eventually every objectivity and research

T interest is lost (Jorgensen,  1989; DeWalt & DeWalt,  2002).

 While participating, the researcher should observe and record, and at a later stage

OBSERVATI
analyze behavior, actions, interactions, events, and the like.
 Werner and Schoepfle (1987) discern three consecutive processes in observation that
may provide an increasingly deep understanding of the setting that is being studied:

ON
descriptive observation, focused observation, and selective observation
 Participant observation requires many skills, such as commitment, the ability to fit in,
tact, the ability to communicate with different members of the social group at their
level, patience, the ability to observe, the ability to separate the role of participant
from that of observer, and so on.
PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
STRUCTURED
OBSERVATION
 Structured observation is focused in nature, as it
looks selectively at predetermined phenomena. The
focus of structured observation is fragmented into
small and manageable pieces of information (such as
information on behavior, actions, interactions, or
events).
 There are different levels of structure in structured
observation. For instance, the researcher may have decided
on the observation categories in a rather precise and
mutually exclusive way in advance (highly structured
observation) or start with a detailed plan of what will be
observed and how, but collect the data in a less systematic
or predetermined way (semi‐structured observation).
STRUCTURED OBSERVATION
 Coding schemes contain predetermined categories for recording what is observed. Such
schemes come in many forms and shapes. Some of them are very simple; they merely allow
the researcher to note whether or not a particular event has taken place. Other schemes are
more complex; they include multiple categories, timescales, and the like.
 The type of coding scheme you will use depends on the information that you want to collect
 The following considerations should be taken into account with regard to the construction of a
coding scheme.
 Focus
 Objective
 Ease of use
 Mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive
ALTERNATIVE
WAY OF
CODING EVENT
 a simple checklist provides information
about how often a certain event has occurred
 a sequence record allows the researcher to
collect information on how often an event
occurs and about the order in which the
events occur
 a sequence record on a timescale adds a
further level of detail, showing the time
intervals between the events
  One of the main advantages of observation is
its directness
ADVANTAGES  Another advantage of observation is that it is
AND possible to observe certain groups of
DISADVANTA individuals from whom it may otherwise be
difficult to obtain information.
GES OF
 Drawbacks of observational studies are
OBSERVATION reactivity, observer bias, and that it is time
consuming, tedious and expensive.
DEFINITION OF
QUESTIONNAIRE
A questionnaire is a preformulated written set of questions to which respondents record their
answers, usually within rather closely defined alternatives.
TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRES
1) Personally administered questionnaires
• The main advantage of this is that the researcher or a member of the research team can collect all the
completed responses within a short period of time. Any doubts that the respondents might have on any
question can be clari- fied on the spot. 
• A disadvantage of personally administered questionnaires is that the researcher may introduce a bias
by explaining questions differently to different people; participants may be in fact answering different
questions as compared to those to whom the questionnaire was mailed. What’s more, personally
administered questionnaires take time and a lot of effort. 
2) Mail questionnaires. 
• A mail questionnaire is a self‐administered (paper and pencil) questionnaire that is sent to respondents
via the mail. This method has long been the backbone of business research, but with the arrival of the
Internet, mobile phones, and social networks, mail questionnaires have become redundant or even
obsolete. Instead, online ques- tionnaires are posted on the Internet or sent via email.
TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRES
3) Electronic and online questionnaires
• The distribution of electronic or online questionnaires is easy and fast. Online question- naires
are usually created as “web forms” with a database to store the answers and statistical software
to provide statistical analysis. 
• Online questionnaires are often used to gain a deeper understanding of consumers’ opinions
and preferences. 
 A big advantage of online survey research is that it makes the most of the ability of the
Internet to provide access to groups and individuals who would be difficult, if not impossible,
to reach through other channels.
 disadvantages to online questionnaires. When conducting online research, researchers often
encounter problems with regard to sampling. 
GUIDELINES FOR
QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
• Principles of wording
o Content and purpose of the questions
The nature of the variable tapped – subjective feelings or objective facts – will
determine what kinds of questions are asked. If the variables tapped are of a
subjective nature (e.g., satisfaction, involvement), where respondents’ beliefs,
perceptions, and attitudes are to be measured, the questions should tap the
dimensions and elements of the concept. Where objective variables, such as age and
educational levels of respondents, are tapped, a single direct question – preferably
one that has an ordinal scaled set of categories – is appropriate. Thus, the purpose of
each question should be carefully considered so that the variables are adequately
measured and yet no superfluous questions are asked.
PRINCIPLES OF WORDING
 Language and wording of the questionnaire
The language of the questionnaire should approximate the level of understanding of the
respondents. The choice of words will depend on their educational level, the usage of terms
and idioms in the culture, and the frames of refer- ence of the respondents. 
 Type and form of questions
 Open-ended versus closed questions
 Positively and negatively worded questions
 Double-barreled questions
 Ambiguous questions 
 Recall-dependent questions
 Leading questions
 Loaded questions
 Social desirability
 Social desirability
 Length of questions
PRINCIPLES OF WORDING
 Sequencing of questions
o The sequence of questions in the questionnaire should be such that the respondent
is led from questions of a general nature to those that are more specific, and from
questions that are relatively easy to answer to those that are progres- sively more
difficult. 
o In determining the sequence of questions, it is advisable not to place contiguously a
positively worded and a negatively worded question tapping the same element or
dimension of a concept. 
 Classification data or personal information
Classification data, also known as personal information or demographic questions,
elicit such information as age, educational level, marital status, and income. 
GUIDELINES FOR QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
 Principles of measurement
Not only is it important to address issues of wording and measurement in questionnaire
design, but it is also necessary to pay attention to how the questionnaire looks. An attractive
and neat questionnaire with appropriate introduction, instructions, and well‐arrayed set of
questions and response alternatives will make it easier for the respondents to answer them. A
good introduction, well‐organized instructions, and neat alignment of the questions are all
important. 
 Review of questionnaire design
When well‐validated instruments are used, the findings of the study benefit the scientific
community since the results can be repli- cated and additions to the theory base made.
GUIDELINES FOR QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN
 Pretesting of structured questions
Pretesting involves the use of a small number of respondents to test the
appropriateness of the questions and their comprehension. This helps to rectify any
inadequacies before admin- istering the instrument orally or through a questionnaire
to respondents, and thus reduces bias.
 Electronic questionnaire and survey design
Electronic survey design systems (for instance, InstantSurvey, Infopoll, SurveyGold,
Statpac, SurveyMonkey, SurveyPro, The Survey System), which facilitate the
preparation and administration of questionnaires, are particularly useful for online
research. Such systems usually include a range of programs enabling the user to
design sophisticated ques- tionnaires, computerize the data collection process, check
for syntactical or logical errors in the coding, and analyze the data collected. 
INTERNATIONAL DIMENSIONS
OF SURVEYS
 Special issues in instrumentation for cross-cultural research
Certain special issues need to be addressed while designing instruments for
collecting data from multiple coun- tries. Since different languages are spoken in
different countries, it is important to ensure that the translation of the instrument
to the local language matches accurately to the original language. 
 Issues in cross-cultural data collection
At least three issues are important for cross ‐cultural data collection – response
equivalence, timing of data collection, and the status of the individual collecting
the data.
REVIEW OF THE ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES OF DIFFERENT DATA
COLLECTION METHODS AND WHEN TO USE
EACH
 Face‐to‐face interviews 
 provide rich data, offer the opportunity to establish rapport with the interviewees, and help to explore
and understand complex issues. 
 face‐to‐face interviews have the potential for introducing interviewer bias and can be expensive if a
large number of subjects are involved. 
 Face‐to‐face interviews are best suited to the exploratory stages of research when the researcher is
trying to get an overarching view of the concepts or the situational factors.
 Telephone interviews 
 help to contact subjects dispersed over various geographic regions and obtain imme- diate responses
from them. They are, hence, an efficient way of collecting data when one has specific, struc- tured
questions to ask, needs the responses quickly, and has a sample spread over a wide area. 
 On the negative side, the interviewer cannot observe the nonverbal responses of the respondents, and
the interviewee can block the call.
REVIEW OF THE ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES OF DIFFERENT DATA
COLLECTION METHODS AND WHEN TO USE
EACH
 Observational studies 
 Observational studies help us to comprehend complex issues through direct observation (either
as a partici- pant or a nonparticipant observer) and then, if possible, asking questions to seek
clarification on certain issues. 
 Observational studies are best suited for research requiring non‐self ‐report descriptive data; that
is, when behaviors are to be understood without directly asking the respondents themselves.
 Personally administering questionnaires 
 Personally administering question to groups of individuals helps to (1) establish rapport with the
respondents while introducing the survey, (2) provide clarification sought by the respondents on
the spot, and (3) collect the questionnaires immediately after they are completed. In that sense,
there is a 100% response rate. 
 On the negative side, administering questionnaires personally is expensive, especially if the
sample is widely dispersed geographically.
REVIEW OF THE ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES OF DIFFERENT DATA
COLLECTION METHODS AND WHEN TO USE
EACH
 Electronic questionnaires 
 Electronic questionnaries are advantageous when responses to many
questions have to be obtained from a sample that is geographically
dispersed, or it is difficult or not possible to conduct telephone interviews
without much expense. 
 On the negative side, such questionnaires usually have a low response
rate and one cannot be sure if the data obtained are unbiased since the
nonrespondents may be different from those who did respond.
MULTIMETHODS OF DATA
COLLECTION
Because almost all data collection methods have some bias. Therefore, high
correlations among data obtained on the same variable from different sources and
through different data collection methods lend more credibility to the research
instrument and to the data obtained through these instruments. Good research
entails collection of data from multiple sources and through multiple data collection
methods. Such research, though, is more costly and time consuming.
MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS
As a manager, we will perhaps engage consultants to do research and may not be
collecting data ourself through interviews, questionnaires, or observation. Also, as a
manager, we will be able to differentiate between good and bad questions used in
surveys, with sensitivity to cultural variations, not only in scaling but also in
developing the entire survey instrument, and in collecting data. 
ETHICS AND THE
RESEARCHER
 Treating the information given by the respondent as strictly confidential and guarding his
or her privacy is one of the primary responsibilities of the researcher.
 Personal or seemingly intrusive information should not be solicited, and if it is absolutely
neces- sary for the project, it should be tapped with high sensitivity to the respondent,
offering specific reasons.
 Whatever the nature of the data collection method, the self‐esteem and self ‐respect of the
subjects should never be violated.
 No one should be forced to respond to the survey and if someone does not want to avail
themselves of the opportunity to participate, the individual’s desire should be respected.
Informed consent of the subjects should be the goal of the researcher. This holds true even
when data are collected through mechanical means, such as recording interviews and
videotaping.
ETHICS AND THE
RESEARCHER
 Nonparticipant observers should be as unintrusive as possible. In qualitative studies,
personal values could easily bias the data.
Posting invitations to participate in a survey on social networks, discussion groups,
and chat rooms is often perceived as “spam”. Make sure that you are familiar with,
and that you act in accordance with, anti‐spam legislation and guidelines.
There should be absolutely no misrepresentation or distortion in reporting the data
collected during the study.
ETHICAL BEHAVIOR OF
RESPONDENTS
 The subject, once having exercised the choice to participate in a study, should
cooperate fully in the tasks ahead, such as responding to a survey.
 The respondent also has an obligation to be truthful and honest in the responses.
Misrepresentation or giving information, knowing it to be untrue, should be
avoided.
THANK YOU