Comparisons of the

States of Matter
• the solid and liquid states have a much higher
density than the gas state
– therefore the molar volume of the solid and liquid states is
much smaller than the gas state
• the solid and liquid states have similar densities
– generally the solid state is a little denser
• notable exception: ice is less dense than liquid water
• the molecules in the solid and liquid state are in
close contact with each other, while the molecules in
a gas are far apart

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular

1
Approach
 Explaining the Properties of Solids
• the particles in a solid are packed close
together and are fixed in position
though they may vibrate
• the close packing of the particles results in
solids being incompressible
• the inability of the particles to move around
results in solids retaining their shape and
volume when placed in a new container; and
prevents the particles from flowing
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 2
 Phase Changes

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 3

Liquids

properties &
structure
 Surface Tension
• surface tension is a property of liquids that results from
the tendency of liquids to minimize their surface area
• in order to minimize their surface area, liquids form
drops that are spherical
 as long as there is no gravity
• the layer of molecules on the surface behave differently
than the interior
 because the cohesive forces on the surface molecules have a
net pull into the liquid interior
• the surface layer acts like an elastic skin

5
 Factors Affecting Surface Tension
• the stronger the intermolecular attractive forces,
the higher the surface tension will be
• raising the temperature of a liquid reduces its
surface tension
raising the temperature of the liquid increases the
average kinetic energy of the molecules
the increased molecular motion makes it easier to
stretch the surface
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 6
 Viscosity
• viscosity is the resistance of a liquid to flow
 1 poise = 1 P = 1 g/cm∙s
 often given in centipoise, cP
• larger intermolecular attractions = larger viscosity
• higher temperature = lower viscosity

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 7

 Viscosity of Water vs. Temperature

1.2

0.8
Viscosity, cP

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Temperature, deg C
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 8
 Capillary Action
• capillary action is the ability of a liquid to
flow up a thin tube against the influence of
gravity
the narrower the tube, the higher the liquid rises
• capillary action is the result of the two forces
working in conjunction, the cohesive and
adhesive forces
cohesive forces attract the molecules together
adhesive forces attract the molecules on the edge
to the tube’s surface
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 9
 Meniscus
• the curving of the liquid surface in a thin
tube is due to the competition between
adhesive and cohesive forces
• the meniscus of water is concave in a
glass tube because its adhesion to the
glass is stronger than its cohesion for
itself
• the meniscus of mercury is convex in a
glass tube because its cohesion for itself
is stronger than its adhesion for the glass
 metallic bonds stronger than intermolecular
attractions
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 10
 Vaporization
• molecules in the liquid are constantly
in motion
• the average kinetic energy is
proportional to the temperature
• however, some molecules have more
kinetic energy than the average
• if these molecules are at the surface,
they may have enough energy to
overcome the attractive forces
 therefore – the larger the surface area,
the faster the rate of evaporation
• this will allow them to escape the
liquid and become a vapor
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 11
 Boiling Point
• when the temperature of a liquid reaches a point
where its vapor pressure is the same as the
external pressure, vapor bubbles can form
anywhere in the liquid
not just on the surface
• this phenomenon is what is called boiling and
the temperature required to have the vapor
pressure = external pressure is the boiling point
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 12
Heating Curve of Water

13
 Segment 1
• heating 1.00 mole of ice at -25.0°C up to the melting
point, 0.0°C
• q = mass x Cs x T
 mass of 1.00 mole of ice = 18.0 g
 Cs = 2.09 J/mol∙°C

 
q  18.0 g  2.09 g JC  0.0C   25.0C 


q  941 J  0.941 kJ

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 14

 Segment 2
• melting 1.00 mole of ice at the melting point, 0.0°C
• q = n∙Hfus
 n = 1.00 mole of ice
 Hfus = 6.02 kJ/mol

q  1.00 mol  kJ
6.02 mol 
q  6.02 kJ

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 15

 Segment 3
• heating 1.00 mole of water at 0.0°C up to the boiling
point, 100.0°C
• q = mass x Cs x T
 mass of 1.00 mole of water = 18.0 g
 Cs = 2.09 J/mol∙°C

q  18.0 g   J
4.18 g C  100.0C  0.0C
3
q  7.52  10 J  7.52 kJ

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 16

 Segment 4
• boiling 1.00 mole of water at the boiling point, 100.0°C
• q = n∙Hvap
 n = 1.00 mole of ice
 Hfus = 40.7 kJ/mol

q  1.00 mol  kJ
40.7 mol 
q  40.7 kJ

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 17

 Segment 5
• heating 1.00 mole of steam at 100.0°C up to 125.0°C
• q = mass x Cs x T
 mass of 1.00 mole of water = 18.0 g
 Cs = 2.01 J/mol∙°C

 
q  18.0 g  2.01 g JC  125.0C  100.0C 


q  904 J  0.904 kJ

Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 18

 Phase Diagrams
Fusion Curve
critical
melting point
freezing
Pressure

Solid Liquid
normal normal
melting pt. boiling pt.
1 atm
Sublimation
triple vaporization
Curve point
condensation Vapor Pressure
sublimation Curve

deposition
Gas

Temperature 19