Interpreting

The Schwarzschild Metric

[ ]
• Event Horizon 𝟏−
𝒓𝒔
𝟎
• Gravitational 𝒓
 
𝟏
𝟎 −
Time Dilation 𝒓𝒔
𝟏−
• Bigger on the inside 𝒓
Relativity 108:
Schwarzschild Solution
a. Schwarzschild Metric Derivation
b. Interpretation of Schwarzschild Metric
• Gravitational Time Dilation, Event Horizon
c. Schwarzschild Geodesics
• gravitational lensing, perihelion shift
d. Alternative coordinates in Schwarzschild geometry
e. Gravitational Doppler Effect
 !! Important !!
• Spacetime coordinates don’t always
have an obvious physical meaning
• We should NOT trust them to give us
important physical information.
• We should trust the metric to make
physical measurements.
𝑐𝑡𝑟 𝜃𝜙
Gravitational
Time Dilation
 In this video:
𝜃 • cover “radial” motion only
• motion that goes directly
toward or away from the
𝑟 mass along the -coordinate.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝜙 • Ignore and angle
coordinates
• treat spacetime as
2-dimensional with only a
time coordinate and a
Schwarzschild Metric

Constant
and
time

Not all the same length!!

⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗
𝑒𝑡
⃗
𝑒𝑟 ⃗
𝑒𝑟 ⃗
𝑒𝑟 ⃗
𝑒𝑟
𝑀
𝑟 =0 space
time

(spacelike) (lightlike) (timelike)

⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗
𝑒𝑡
⃗
𝑒𝑟 ⃗
𝑒𝑟 ⃗
𝑒𝑟 ⃗
𝑒𝑟
𝑀
𝑟 =0 space
time

(timelike)

⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗
𝑒𝑡
⃗
𝑒𝑟 ⃗
𝑒𝑟 ⃗
𝑒𝑟 ⃗
𝑒𝑟
𝑀
𝑟 =0 space
time
• Since length of of is different
for each -position
• Observers at different constant
-values will experience time
differently
⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗
𝑒𝑡
⃗
𝑒𝑟 ⃗
𝑒𝑟 ⃗
𝑒𝑟 ⃗
𝑒𝑟
𝑀
𝑟 =0 space
Rindler Coordinates 𝑐𝑡 ~
𝑐𝑡

(Relativity 105b)
~𝑥
𝐷 𝑥

Observer at has proper

acceleration
 ~
𝑐𝑡
~
𝑥 a ne it y
im u lt
of S
Line second
on
riz
Ho
er
dl

𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 𝐷
n
Ri

On a hyperbola of constant :
Rindler Metric Schwarzschild Metric
(Relativity 105c/d) (Relativity 108a)

[ ]
𝑟𝑠
1− 0
𝑟
𝑔 𝜇𝜈 → 1
0 −
𝑟𝑠
1−
𝑟
Calculating proper time along worldline :

Limit of
infinitesimally
small pieces
 (for constant )

Path has
constant

Use
 𝑔 𝑡𝑡

Worldlines of constant

Conversion factor
 𝑐𝑡
time
𝑟 =𝑟 𝑠

𝑟 =2𝑟 𝑠 𝑟 →∞

space
Proper time experienced by Proper time experienced by
someone at r-coordinate of someone infinitely far away
2 Schwarzschild radii. from gravitational mass
time

𝑟 =𝑟 𝑠
𝑀 space
𝑟 =0
time natural natural Worldlines of
natural
free-fall free-fall free-fall constant
motion motion motion

𝑟 =𝑟 𝑠 space
time Worldlines of
constant

4-acceleration 4-acceleration 4-acceleration

𝑟 =𝑟 𝑠 space
Gravitational Time Dilation Kinematic Time Dilation
Worldlines of Correct way to compare:
constant 1. Integrate tangent vectors
2. Compare resulting proper times

𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝜙
Interpretation of the Schwarzschild -coordinate:
• doesn’t directly
represent physical
distance
𝑔 𝑟𝑟
distance we get if we lay out a series of rulers
 (for constant )
Spacelike
Path has
constant

Use
 𝑔 𝑟𝑟

Worldlines of constant
Interpretation of the Schwarzschild -coordinate:

Two different interpretations of :

1. as a distance from the mass’s center at
2. How relates to the circumference of a circle
around the mass
Worldlines of constant :
 𝑐𝑡
time Worldlines of
𝑟 =𝑟 𝑠 constant
𝑟 ≫𝑟 𝑠
𝑟 →𝑟 𝑠

𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟

𝑀 𝐿0 𝐿0 𝐿0
𝐿0 𝐿0 𝐿0 𝐿0 𝐿0 space
constant

𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠

(view
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 from
𝜙 above)
 [ ]
constant 0 0
( ) (
𝑟𝑠 0
1− 0 0
)
−1
𝑟𝑆
𝑟 − 1− 0 0 0 0
0 𝑟
0 0
−2𝑟 2
−𝑟 0 0 0
2
−2 𝑟 2 ( sin 2𝜃 )
𝑟 0 0 0 −𝑟 ( sin 𝜃 )
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑔 𝜙𝜙
𝜙

(view
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 from
𝜙 above)
Expected “flat space”
circle arc length formula
Schwarzschild Coordinates:

𝐿0=𝑟 𝜙
𝑟 ≠ 𝐿0 𝜙
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
 𝑤
𝜙
𝑟

𝑤 ( 𝑟 )=2 √𝑟 𝑠 ( 𝑟 −𝑟 𝑠 )
 𝑤
𝜙
𝑟
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝐿 Flamm’s Paraboloid
𝐿0 0
𝐿0
𝐿0
𝐿0
Plotted at: https://www.geogebra.org/3d
𝑤
𝜙
𝑟

Flamm’s Paraboloid
Plotted at: https://www.geogebra.org/3d
𝑤
𝜙
𝑟

Flamm’s Paraboloid
 Schwarzschild 3D Embedding
Spacetime Metric Space Metric

See Description
for more on
Flamm’s
Paraboloid!!
⇒ 𝑤 ( 𝑟 ) =2 √ 𝑟 𝑠 ( 𝑟 −𝑟 𝑠 )
 Schwarzschild 3D Embedding
Spacetime Metric Space Metric
Ricci Curvature Scalar
For a given Circumference …

𝑅> 0 𝑅=0 𝑅< 0

MORE AREA Same area less area

than flat space as flat space than flat space
 𝑐𝑡
time Worldlines of
𝑟 =𝑟 𝑠 constant

𝑟 →𝑟 𝑠 𝑟 →∞

𝐿0=𝑟
𝑀 𝐿0 >𝑟 circle arc length
space
Solution taken from:
https://www.symbolab.com/solver/integral-calculator

(factor of can be taken out of

the logarithm and included in
the integration constant)
 Substitute
⇒ 𝑑𝑟 =2 𝑧 𝑑 𝑧
See page 3-16
(Free online - Check
description for link)
 (special thanks to
eigenchris’s boyfriend
for solving this!)
Substitute
 2 2
( cosh 𝜃 ) − ( sinh 𝜃 ) =1

derivable from:
 Quadratic in

𝑒 =𝑦 ±√𝑦 −1
𝑥 2

𝑦 ≥1
𝑟 =𝑧 ⇒ 𝑧 =√ 𝑟
(absorb into
2 constant of
integration)
𝑟 =𝑧 ⇒ 𝑧 =√ 𝑟
(absorb into
2 constant of
integration)
 ¿ [ √ 𝑟 √ 𝑟 − 𝑟 𝑠 +𝑟 𝑠 ln ( √ 𝑟 + √ 𝑟 − 𝑟 𝑠 ) ]𝑟
𝑟𝐻

time
𝑟 =𝑟 𝑠
Valid for

𝑀 space
 𝐿 0=[ √ 𝑟 √ 𝑟 − 𝑟 𝑠 +𝑟 𝑠 ln ( √ 𝑟 + √ 𝑟 −𝑟 𝑠 ) ]𝑟
𝑟𝐻

𝑟 =𝑟 𝑠 𝐿

𝑟 𝐻 =3𝑟 𝑠
𝑟 𝐿 =2𝑟 𝑠

Δ𝑟 =𝑟 𝑠

𝑀 space
 𝐿 0=[ √ 𝑟 √ 𝑟 − 𝑟 𝑠 +𝑟 𝑠 ln ( √ 𝑟 + √ 𝑟 −𝑟 𝑠 ) ]𝑟
𝑟𝐻

𝑟 =𝑟 𝑠 𝐿

𝑟 𝐻 =2𝑟 𝑠
𝑟 𝐿 =𝑟 𝑠

Δ𝑟 =𝑟 𝑠

𝑀 space
 Flat
spacetime

𝑟 =𝑟 𝑠
Schwarzschild Spacetime
 Constant

Flat For ,
spacetime We can act as if
Schwarzschild gives

𝑟 =𝑟 𝑠 Schwarzschild Spacetime

Δ𝑟 =100 𝑟 𝑠
Schwarzschild Metric

Schwarzschild (Event
Radius Horizon)
 [ ]
0 0
( ) −( 1 − 𝑟 )
𝑟𝑠 0
1− −1 0 0
𝑟 00 0 0
as
𝑠

0 𝑟
0 0
−2𝑟 2
−𝑟 0 0 0
2
−2 𝑟 2 ( sin 2𝜃 )
0 0 0 −𝑟 ( sin 𝜃 )
“singularities” as

singularity: a TRUE geometric singularity

• spacetime manifold “stops” at this point
singularity: a coordinate singularity
• due to coordinate system; can be removed by changing coords
~
⃗
𝑒𝜃
~
⃗
𝑒𝑟 𝜃 2D Polar 2D Cartesian
𝑦
⃗
𝑒𝑦
Coordinates Coordinates
⃗
𝑒𝑥
𝑟 𝑥

Origin ():
• has multiple values
• can’t become negative
are defined at origin

not defined at origin

 [ ]
0 0
( ) (
𝑟𝑠 0
1− 0 0
)
−1
𝑟𝑆
𝑟 − 1− 0 0 0 0
0 𝑟
0 0
−2𝑟 2
−𝑟 0 0 2
0
2
−
2 𝑟 ( sin 2𝜃 )
0 0 0 −𝑟 ( sin 𝜃 )

as
singularity: a coordinate singularity
• due to coordinate system; can be removed by changing coords

Can be removed in other coordinate systems (Relativity 108d):

• Eddington-Finkelstein coordinates
• Kruskal-Szekeres coordinates
 Schwarzschild Metric Schwarzschild Radius

[ ]
0 0
( ) (
𝑟𝑠 0
1− 0 0
)
−1
𝑟𝑆
𝑟 − 1− 0 0 0 0
0 𝑟
0 0
−2𝑟 2
−𝑟 0 0 0
2
−2 𝑟 2 ( sin 2𝜃 )
0 0 0 −𝑟 ( sin 𝜃 )

Schwarzschild
Body Mass Radius Physical Radius

Earth
Sun
Black Hole
Imagine super-dense object with
• Can understand how it curves spacetime by
calculating how light behaves near it
• light-like geodesics
• Geodesics where all tangent vectors have
squared length of zero
• Only consider light beams travelling in radial
direction: constant
How does light behave in Schwarzschild geometry?
Solve for paths with zero spacetime interval

(has to be zero every

step of the way, not
just zero overall)
𝑠 2=− 3

𝑠 1=+3
𝑠=0
Assume radial geodesics only
(motion only along and not along ).
 (both sides)

Path parameter can

be anything we want,
so choose
 Is the speed of light
changing due to
gravity???
Depends on what you mean by “speed”...
Trust the metric, not your eyes or coordinates!
• is the proper time for only someone infinitely
far away from the mass
• is doesn’t measure proper length
is just a ratio between coordinates.
Doesn’t always have any particular physical meaning.

Local speed of light is always

• is local proper distance
• is local proper time
Relativity 105f
Light beam (Cartesian cords)

𝑥=± 𝑐𝑡 + 𝑥 0
Light beam (Rindler cords)
𝑐 𝑡 ( 𝑟 )=± ( 𝑟 +𝑟 𝑠 log ( 𝑟 −𝑟 𝑠 ) ) +𝑘
log ( 𝑢 ) ≡log e ( 𝑢 ) ≡l n ( 𝑢 )
𝑦
𝑦 =log ( 𝑢 ) ⇒ 𝑢=𝑒
𝑐 𝑡 ( 𝑟 )=± ( 𝑟 +𝑟 𝑠 log ( 𝑟 −𝑟 𝑠 ) ) +𝑘
Outside the Schwarzschild Radius () :
𝑐 𝑡 ( 𝑟 )=± ( 𝑟 +𝑟 𝑠 log ( 𝑟 −𝑟 𝑠 ) ) +𝑘
 Incoming Geodesics
time 𝑐 𝑡 ( 𝑟 )=− ( 𝑟 +𝑟 𝑠 log ( 𝑟 −𝑟 𝑠 ) ) + 𝑘

Outside the
space Schwarzschild
Radius ()

𝑟 =𝑟 𝑠
 Incoming Geodesics
time 𝑐 𝑡 ( 𝑟 )=− ( 𝑟 +𝑟 𝑠 log ( 𝑟 −𝑟 𝑠 ) ) + 𝑘

Outside the
space Schwarzschild
Radius ()

𝑟 =𝑟 𝑠 Gravitational Time Dilation

 Outgoing Geodesics
time

Outside the
Schwarzschild
Radius ()
space

𝑟 =𝑟 𝑠
𝑐 𝑡 ( 𝑟 )=+ ( 𝑟 +𝑟 𝑠 log ( 𝑟 −𝑟 𝑠 ) ) +𝑘
time Outside the
Schwarzschild
Radius ()
𝑐 𝑡 ( 𝑟 )=± ( 𝑟 +𝑟 𝑠 log ( 𝑟 −𝑟 𝑠 ) ) +𝑘

space
𝑟 =𝑟 𝑠
time
𝑟 =𝑟 𝑠

Inside Event
Horizon

𝑀 space
𝑟 >𝑟 𝑠 𝑐 𝑡 ( 𝑟 )=± ( 𝑟 +𝑟 𝑠 log ( 𝑟 −𝑟 𝑠 ) ) +𝑘
Outer Solution

𝑟 <𝑟 𝑠 𝑐 𝑡 ( 𝑟 )=± ( 𝑟 +𝑟 𝑠 log ( −𝑟 +𝑟 𝑠 ) ) +𝑘

Inner Solution
 𝑐 𝑡 ( 𝑟 )=± ( 𝑟 +𝑟 𝑠 log ( −𝑟 +𝑟 𝑠 ) ) +𝑘
time
Inside the
Schwarzschild
Radius ()

space

𝑟 =0 𝑟 =𝑟 𝑠
𝑟 =0 𝑟 =𝑟 𝑠
𝑟 =0 𝑟 =𝑟 𝑠 𝑟𝑠
⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⋅ ⃗
𝑒𝑡 = 𝑔𝑡𝑡 =1 −
𝑟

⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗
𝑒𝑡

spacelike lightlike timelike

𝑟 =0 𝑟 =𝑟 𝑠

⃗
𝑒𝑟 ⃗
𝑒𝑟

undefined
timelike (in this coord system) spacelike
 using signature

Case of :
is time-like
is space-like
Case of :
is space-like
is time-like
𝑟 =0 𝑟 =𝑟 𝑠
 singularity

ng
oi
tg
ou
Relativity 108d: Event

in
Horizon

go
Kruskal-Szekeres

ngi
Coordinates
 Summary:
• Can’t always rely on spacetime coordinates to
have direct physical meaning
• We should trust the metric to make physical
measurements.
Schwarzschild Metric Schwarzschild Radius

[ ]
0 0
( ) (
𝑟𝑠 0
1− 0 0
)
−1
𝑟𝑆
𝑟 − 1− 0 0 0 0
0 𝑟
0 0
−2𝑟 2
−𝑟 0 0 0
2
−2 𝑟 2 ( sin 2𝜃 )
0 0 0 −𝑟 ( sin 𝜃 )
Schwarzschild coordinate = proper time for
someone infinitely far from the mass.

corresponds to smaller and smaller amounts of proper

time closer to the mass (Schwarzschild radius).

Worldlines of constant
Gravitational
Time Dilation:
Schwarzschild coordinate DOES NOT correspond to
physics length / proper length .
Worldlines of constant :
1 unit of corresponds to
more than 1 unit of near
the mass (Schwarzschild
radius).
gives accurate circumferences
around mass using “flat space”
Larger radius than expected
formula . for a given circumference.
𝑤
𝜙
𝑟
Black Hole = when Schwarzschild radius becomes
bigger than a mass’s physical radius .
Outside observer (): light/massive objects that fall
towards black hole will appear to never cross event
horizon due to gravitational time dilation.
On event horizon (): outgoing light beam will
remain frozen in place.
Inside event horizon (): all light/masses are forced
to fall into the singularity.
Next Video:
Schwarzschild
Geodesics
𝑀