RECTIFIERS

The process of converting a.c. into d.c. is called as rectification.

An electronic device which offers low resistance to current in one direction and high resistance to
current in the opposite direction is called as rectifier.
There are two types of rectifiers
i) Half Wave rectifier (ii) Full wave rectifier.
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

Operation:
Equivalent circuit of half wave rectifier for analysis

In the positive half cycle of input voltage Diode Conducts and current I flows through 𝑅 .
𝑖 = 𝐼 sin ∞ 0 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 𝜋 … … … … … … … … (1)
During Negative half cycle diode is reverse biased and no current flows through diode or Load 𝑅
∴ 𝑖 = 0 𝜋 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 2𝜋 … … … … … … … . (2)
Where 𝛼 = 𝜔𝑡
∴ Peak Value load Current 𝐼 =

Where 𝑅 = dynamic resistance of diode

𝑅 = Load resistance
i) DC output current (𝑰𝒂𝒄 ) (Reading of a DC ammeter )
A DC ammeter indicates the average value of the current passing through it.
The average value of an function is given by the area of one cycle of the curve divided by base.

1
∴𝐼 = 𝑖 ∙ 𝑑𝛼 … … … … . . (3)
2𝜋

1 𝐼 𝜋
∴ For H. W. R. , 𝐼 = 𝐼 sin 𝛼 𝑑𝛼 = [− cos 𝛼] … … … … . . (4)
2𝜋 2𝜋 0

𝐼
𝐼 =
𝜋
0 to  is considered as current flows in this period only.
ii) Reading on ac ammeter (𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 )
This meter indicates the effective or rms current passing through it.The RMS value squared of
a periodic function of time is given by the area of one cycle of the curve, which represents
square of the function divided by base

1
∴𝐼 = 𝑖 𝑑𝛼 … … … … … … . (5)
2𝜋

𝐼 1 − cos 2𝛼
= 𝑑𝛼
2𝜋 2

𝐼 sin 2𝛼 𝜋
= 𝛼−
4𝜋 2 0

𝐼
= (𝜋)
4𝜋
𝐼
𝐼 = … … … … … … … (6)
2
Note: RMS value of sinusoidal wave is
√

iii) D.C. Voltage (Reading on DC voltmeter)

It indicates the average value of the voltage across its terminals.
If the voltmeter is across diode, when the diode is conducting, it has resistance Rf, and voltage across
it is I Rf. when the device is non conducting, current is zero, and voltage vi appears across the diode.
∴ 𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅 = 𝐼 𝑅 sin 𝛼 0≤𝛼≤𝜋
𝑣 = 𝑉 sin 𝛼 𝜋 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 2𝜋 … … … … … … … … (7)
∴ DC Voltmeter reading

1
𝑉 = 𝐼 𝑅 sin 𝛼 𝑑𝛼 + 𝑉 sin 𝛼 𝑑𝛼
2𝜋
 1 1 𝑉
= = 𝐼 𝑅 −𝐼 𝑅 +𝑅 ∵𝐼 =
𝜋 𝐼 𝑅 −𝑉 𝜋 𝑅 +𝑅
𝐼 𝑅
𝑉 =− … … … … … … . (8)
𝜋
As
𝐼
𝐼 =
𝜋

(d) Voltage across diode

 dc diode voltage = −𝐼 𝑅

iv) Reading of a wattmeter.

It indicates the average value of the product of the instantaneous current through its current
coil and the instantaneous voltage across its potential coil.

1
∴𝑃 =𝑃 = 𝑉 𝑖 𝑑𝛼 … … … … … … (9)
2𝜋

Now 𝑉 = 𝑖 𝑅 + 𝑅 for 0 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 𝜋
𝐼
𝑃 = 𝐼 𝑑𝑐 × 𝑅 = 𝑅
𝜋
1
∴𝑃 = 𝑖 𝑅 + 𝑅 𝑑𝛼
2𝜋

1
= 𝐼 sin 𝛼 (𝑅 + 𝑅 )𝑑𝛼
2𝜋

𝐼 1 𝐼
= 𝑅 +𝑅 now as 𝐼 sin 𝛼 𝑑𝛼 =
4 2𝜋 2

𝑃 =𝑃 =𝐼 𝑅 +𝑅 … … … … … … … . (10)
v) Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
The max. voltage to which the diode is subjected is called the peak inverse voltage. It is called
so as it occurs during that part of cycle when the diode is non conducting.
 PIV for H.W.R. = 𝑉
vi) Regulation:
The variation of dc output voltage as a function of dc load current is called regulation.
V −V
% regulation is defined as = … … … … … … … … (11)
𝑉
The variation of 𝑉 and 𝐼 for the H.W.R. is
𝐼 𝑉 /𝜋
𝐼 = = … … … … … … . (12)
𝜋 𝑅 +𝑅
𝑉 =𝐼 𝑅
𝑉
= − 𝐼 𝑅 … … … … … … … . (13)
𝜋
[𝑉 = ]
𝑉
𝐼 𝑅 +𝐼 𝑅 +𝑅 =
𝜋
𝑉
∴𝑉 =
−𝐼 𝑅 =𝑉
𝜋
The thevenin’s equation circuit for H.W.R. is as below.

a)……………

b) Variation in terminal voltage with Load current for ideal and practical power supply.

VII) Ripple Factor: ( r )

A rectifier should convert ac into dc. But H.W.R. does not achieve this i.e. output is
not constant. It has periodically fluctuating components still remaining in the output
wave.
The measure of the fluctuating components is given by ripple factor r.
rms value of alternating components of wave
r is defined as =
average value of wave
𝐼 , 𝑉,
= … … … … … … . . (14)
𝐼 𝑉
Where 𝐼 , and 𝑉 , denotes the 𝑟𝑚𝑠 value of dc components of the current and voltage
respectively.
The instantaneous ac components of current
𝑖 =𝑖−𝑖

1
∴ 𝐼′ , = (𝑖 − 𝐼 ) 𝑑𝛼
2𝜋

2
(𝑖 − 2𝑖 𝐼 + 𝐼 ) 𝑑𝛼
2𝜋

The first term of integral is simply 𝐼 . of the total wave. The second term is
(−2𝐼 )𝐼 = −2𝐼

1
∵ 𝑖 𝑑𝛼 = 𝐼
2𝜋

∴ 𝑟𝑚𝑠 ripple current

𝐼′ , = 𝑟 − 2𝐼 +𝐼

= 𝐼 −𝐼

From Equation (14)

𝐼 −𝐼
𝑟=
𝐼

𝐼
𝑟= −1
𝐼

𝐼 =𝐼 +𝐼 ,

𝐼 =𝐼 +𝐼 ,

𝐼 𝐼 ,
=1+
𝐼 𝐼

For half wave rectifier

 𝐼 𝐼 /2
= = 1.57
𝐼 𝐼 /𝜋
∴𝑟= (1.57) − 1 = 1.21
𝑟 = 121%
 𝑟𝑚𝑠 ripple voltage exceeds dc output voltage
∴ H.W.R. is poor circuit for rectification.
VIII) Ratio of Rectification or Efficiency (𝜼)

dc power output 𝑃 ( )
𝜂= =
ac input power 𝑃( )

𝐼
𝑃 ( ) =𝐼 𝑅 = 𝑅
𝜋
𝐼
𝑃( ) =𝐼 𝑅 +𝑅 = 𝑅 +𝑅
2
𝐼
𝑅 4 1
∴𝜂= 𝜋 = ∙ for max 𝜂 R ≪ R
𝐼 𝜋 𝑅
1+𝑅
4 (𝑅 + 𝑅 )
Only 40.6% of ac power input is converted into dc power input. Rest exists as ac power in the load.
Disadvantage of H.W.R.
i) Excessive ripple (1.21)
ii) Low efficiency (0.406)
ix) Transformer utilization Factor (TUF)
Definition: The ratio of output dc power delivered to the load to the ac rating of transformer
secondary.
𝑃 ( )
i. e. 𝑇𝑈𝐹 =
𝑎. 𝑐. rating of X secondary
Now, A.C. rating of 𝑋 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 = 𝑉 ∙𝐼
𝑉 𝐼
×
√2 2
𝐼
= 𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅
2√2
[where R =resistance of transformer secondary winding]
𝐼
∙𝑅
∴ 𝑇𝑈𝐹 = 𝜋
𝐼 (𝑅 + 𝑅 + 𝑅 )
2√2
2√2 1
𝑇𝑈𝐹 = ∙
𝜋 𝑅 +𝑅
1+ 𝑅

TUF will be maximum. When 𝑅 is very large compared to 𝑅 + 𝑅 and is given by,
TUF max = 0.286
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER (F.W.R.)

A Full wave rectifier comprises of two half wave rectifiers. During positive half cycle, of input top of
the transformer secondary winding. Is positive w. r. t. the centre tap & hence diode D1 conducts. The
bottom of the transformer secondary winding. Is negative w.r.t centre tap and hence D2 is off i.e.
open.
During negative half cycle, reverse action takes place & diode D2 conducts and D1 is off i.e. open.
Hence upper half of transformer secondary winding is disconnected from the load.
𝑖 𝑑 = 𝐼 sin 𝜔𝑡
∴ 0 ≤ 𝜔𝑡 ≤ 𝜋 … … … … … … . (1)
𝑖𝑑 =0
And
𝑖𝑑 =0
∴ 𝜋 ≤ 𝜔𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋 … … … … … … . (2)
𝑖 𝑑 = +𝐼 sin 𝜔𝑡
1. Average value
𝑻
𝟏
𝑰𝒂𝒗 = 𝑰𝒅𝒄 = 𝒊 𝒅𝒕
𝑻
𝟎
𝝅
𝟏
= 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶 𝒅𝜶
𝝅
𝟎
𝑰𝒎 𝝅
= [− 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶]
𝝅 𝟎
𝟐𝑰𝒎
=
𝝅
𝟐𝑰𝒎
𝑰𝒅𝒄 = 𝑰𝒂𝒗 =
𝝅
𝟐𝑽𝒎
𝑰𝒅𝒄 = … … … … … … … … . (𝟑)
𝝅(𝑹𝒇 + 𝑹𝑳 )
2. RMS Value:
𝟏
𝑻 𝟐
𝟏
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝒊𝟐 𝒅𝒕
𝑻
𝟎
 𝟏
𝝅 𝟐
𝟏
= 𝑰𝟐𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝜶 𝒅𝜶
𝝅
𝟎
𝟏
𝝅 𝟐
𝑰𝟐𝒎 𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝜶
= 𝒅𝜶
𝝅 𝟐
𝟎
𝟏
𝑰𝟐𝒎 𝜶 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜶 𝝅 𝟐
=
𝟐𝝅 𝟐 𝟎
𝑰𝒎
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 = … … … … … … … … … … . (𝟒)
√𝟐
3. Output DC voltage
𝑉
𝐼 =
𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅
Where 𝑅 = Resistance of secondary winding of transformer
𝑅 = Forward resistance of diode
𝑅 = Load Resistance
∴𝑉 =𝐼 ∙𝑅
2𝐼
= ∙𝑅
𝜋
2𝑉
= 𝜋
𝑅 +𝑅
1+ 𝑅

2𝑉
∴𝑉 = 𝜋 … … … … … … . . (6)
𝑅 +𝑅
1+ 𝑅

Thus practical d.c. voltage is less than theoretical value due to finite drop across 𝑅 and 𝑅 . It can be
approximated to theoretical value by making RL very Large compared to 𝑅 + 𝑅 .
It can be also expressed as,
2𝑉
2𝐼 𝜋
𝐼 = =
𝜋 𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅
2𝑉
∴𝐼 𝑅 +𝑅 +𝐼 𝑅 =
𝜋
2𝑉
∴𝑉 = −𝐼 𝑅 +𝑅
𝜋
4. Efficiency:
a) 𝑃 ( ) =𝐼 𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅
= 𝐼 (𝑅 + 𝑅 +𝑅 )
b) 𝑃 ( ) =𝐼 ∙𝑅
 4𝐼
∙𝑅
𝜋
𝑃 ( )
∴ %𝜂 = × 100
𝑃( )
4𝐼 ∙ 𝑅
= × 100
𝐼
2 𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅
8
%𝜂 = × 100
𝑅 +𝑅
𝜋 1+ 𝑅

Maximum efficiency is achieved when RL is very large compared to (𝑅 + 𝑅 )

8
∴%𝜂 = = 81.2%
𝜋
5. Ripple factor

𝐼
𝐼 2 −1
𝑟= −1=
𝐼 4𝐼
𝜋

𝜋
𝑟= − 1 = 0.48
8
6. TUF
A.C. rating secondary = ∙ + ∙
√ √

2𝑉 𝐼 𝑉 𝐼
= =
2√2 √2
𝐼
= 𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅
√2
𝑃 ( )
∴ 𝑇𝑈𝐹 =
𝑎. 𝑐. 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦
 4𝐼
∙𝑅
= 𝜋
𝐼
(𝑅 + 𝑅 + 𝑅 )
√2
4√2
∴ 𝑇𝑈𝐹 =
𝑅 +𝑅
𝜋 1+ 𝑅

TUF is max. where 𝑅 is very large compared to 𝑅 + 𝑅

∴ 𝑇𝑈𝐹( ) = 0.579
7. PIV
When 𝑉 is applied, during –ve half cycle, D1 is OFF and D2 conducts. The peak voltage that
occurs across 𝑅 is 𝑉 .
And at the same time peak voltage from B to A is also 𝑉 .
 PIV = sum of the two is voltage across D1
 PIV = 2Vm.
H.W.R.
1. A 10 k Load is to be fed by a H.W.R. which has a 120: 120 v transformer a a) What is peak
value of output voltage b) What is average value of output c) peak value of current flowing
through Load d) average value of current flowing through load e) PIV.
Solution:
We know;
𝑽𝒎
𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 =
√𝟐
∴a) Peak Value 𝑽𝒎
𝑽𝒎 = 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 ∙ √𝟐
= 120 × √2
= 170𝑉
b) Average Value of output Voltage 𝑉
𝑉
𝑉 =
𝜋
170
𝑉 = = 54.1𝑉
𝜋
c) Peak Value of Current through Load 𝐼
𝑉 170
𝐼 = = = 17𝑚𝐴
𝑅 10 × 10
d) Average Level of Current Through load 𝐼
𝑉 54.1
𝐼 = = = 5.4𝑚𝐴
𝑅 10
e) PIV 𝑉
𝑉 = 170𝑉
2. A Voltage of 200 sin 100 t is applied to a H.W.R. with a load resistance of 5k. Rectifier may be
represented by an ideal diode in series with a resistance of 1k. Find 1) Maximum current 2) DC
component of current 3) rms value of current 4) DC output power 5) Ac power input 6) Rectifier
efficiency 7) TUF. 8) Ripple factor.
Solution:
a) 𝐼
𝑉 200
𝐼 = = = 33.33𝑚𝐴
𝑅 +𝑅 (1 + 5) × 10
b) 𝐼
𝐼 33.33
𝐼 = = = 10.61𝑚𝐴
𝜋 𝜋
c) 𝐼
𝐼
𝐼 = = 16.67𝑚𝐴
2
d) 𝑃
𝑃 =𝐼 ∙ 𝑅 = (10.61) × 5 × 10 = 0.563𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
e) 𝑃
𝑃 =𝐼 (𝑅 + 𝑅 )
= (16.67 × 10 )(100 + 5000)
1.667𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
f) 𝜂
𝑃 40.6
𝜂= =
𝑃 𝑅
1+𝑅

40.6
= = 33.83%
1
1+
5
g) 𝑇𝑈𝐹
0.286 0.286
𝑇𝑈𝐹 = = = 0.238
𝑅 1
1+𝑅 1 +
5
h) 𝑟

𝐼 16.67
𝑟= −1= −1
𝐼 10.11

= 1.29%