Unit 5

Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater Noida
Data Analysis
Hypothesis and Testing
Report Writing
Unit: V
Business Research
Methods
Harsh Awasthi
MBA II Semester
Assistant Professor
MBA
Index
S. No Index
1. Content
2. Objective of Unit
3. Course Outcomes
4. CO-PO & PSO Mapping
5. Prerequisite & Topic wise Recap
6. Topic Mapping with CO
7. Objectives of Topic/Session
8. Lecture
9. Video Links
11/19/2022 Harsh Awasthi KMB203 (BRM) Unit-5
Index
S. No Index
10. Daily Quiz

11. MCQs
12. Weekly Assignment

13. Old Questions Papers
14. Expected Questions Papers

15. Summary
16. References

Content
• Data Analysis: Tabular representation of data
• Graphical Representation of Data
• Hypothesis
• Test of Significance
• Analysis of Variance
• Mechanism of Report Writing

Objective of Unit
Objective of this unit are:
Harsh Awasthi KMB203 (BRM) Unit-5

11/19/2022
Course Outcome
CO1: Knowledge of concept / fundamentals for different types of
research.
CO2: Applying relevant research techniques.
CO3: Understanding relevant scaling & measurement techniques and

should use appropriate sampling techniques
CO4: Synthesizing different techniques of coding, editing, tabulation

and analysis in doing research.
CO5: Evaluating statistical analysis which includes various parametric

test and non parametric test and ANOVA technique and prepare
report.
CO-PO and PSO Mapping
S No CO/PO PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6

1 CO1 2 1
2 CO2 3 2
3 CO3 3
4 CO4 1 3
5 CO 5 1 2
*1=High, *2=Medium, *3=Low

Program Course Outcomes
Specific 1 2 3 4 5
Outcomes
1 3 1
2 1 1 2
3 1 2
Prerequisites and Topic wise Recap
Prerequisites for this session are:
• General understanding of surrounding business
environment.
• Understanding of research design.
Recap:
• Sampling-Basic Concepts
• Sampling errors and non Sampling errors
• Methods to reduce the errors
• Probability Sampling
• Non Probability Sampling
• Determining size of the sample.
Topic & CO Mapping
S No Topic CO Level
1 Data Analysis: Tabular representation of data CO 4 1
2 Graphical Representation of Data CO 4 1
3 Hypothesis CO 4 2
4 Test of Significance CO 5 3
5 Analysis of Variance CO 5 3
6 Mechanism of Report Writing CO 5 1

Session/ Topic Objectives
• To learn & present data in tabular form.

• To learn & present data in graphical form.
• To develop and test Hypothesis.
• To apply various Tests of Significance
• To apply Analysis of Variance in research problems.
• To write Reports.

Data Analysis
Data Analysis is the process of systematically

applying statistical and/or logical techniques to
describe and illustrate, condense and recap, and
evaluate data.
According to Shamoo and Resnik (2003) various

analytic procedures “provide a way of drawing
inductive inferences from data and distinguishing
the signal (the phenomenon of interest) from the
noise (statistical fluctuations) present in the data”
Data Analysis
While data analysis in qualitative research can include
statistical procedures, many times analysis becomes
an ongoing iterative process where data is
continuously collected and analyzed almost
simultaneously. Indeed, researchers generally analyze
for patterns in observations through the entire data
collection phase (Savenye, Robinson, 2004).
The form of the analysis is determined by the specific
qualitative approach taken (field study, ethnography
content analysis, oral history,
biography, unobtrusive research) and the form of the
data (field notes, documents, audiotape, videotape).
Data Analysis
An essential component of ensuring data

integrity is the accurate and appropriate analysis
of research findings. Improper statistical analyses
distort scientific findings, mislead casual readers
(Shepard, 2002), and may negatively influence
the public perception of research.
Integrity issues are just as relevant to analysis of

non-statistical data as well.
Considerations/issues in data analysis
• Having the necessary skills to analyze

• Concurrently selecting data collection methods
and appropriate analysis
• Drawing unbiased inference
• Inappropriate subgroup analysis
• Following acceptable norms for disciplines
• Determining statistical significance
• Lack of clearly defined and objective outcome
measurements
• Providing honest and accurate analysis
Considerations/issues in data analysis
• Manner of presenting data

• Environmental/contextual issues
• Data recording method
• Partitioning ‘text’ when analyzing qualitative
data
• Training of staff conducting analyses
• Reliability and Validity
• Extent of analysis
Data Processing
The collected data in research is processed and
analyzed to come to some conclusion or to verify
the hypothesis made.
Processing of data is important as it makes
further analysis of data easier and efficient.
Processing of Data technically means:
• Editing of data
• Coding of data
• Classification of data
• Tabulation of data
Editing / Data Editing (1)
Data editing is defined as the process involving

the review and adjustment of collected survey
data. The purpose is to control the quality of the
collected data.
Data editing can be performed manually, with

the assistance of a computer or a combination of
both.
Data Editing (2)
The process through which the data is reviewed

to check for consistency, adequacy, detect errors
and outliers (values that are either too big or too
small from the rest of the data) and the
correction of errors within the data in order to
maximize its usefulness for the purpose for which
it was collected is called data editing.
Objectives of Data Editing
The basic purpose served by data editing is that it
improves the quality, accuracy and adequacy of the
collected data thereby making it more suitable for the
purpose for which the data was collected. The following
can therefore be identified as the main objectives of the
data editing process :
• Detection of errors in the data that otherwise affect the
validity of outputs.
• Validation of data for the purposes it was collected.
• Provision of information that that would help access the
overall level of accuracy of the data.
• Detection and identification of any inconsistencies in the
data and outliers and to make adjustments for them.
Types of data editing
1. Validity and completeness of data: refers to
correctness and completeness of obtained
responses. This helps ensure that there are no
missing values or empty fields in the data bases.
2. Range: verifies that data within a field fall

between the boundaries specified for the
particular field.
Types of data editing contd…
3. Duplicate data entry: this helps ensure that

there is no repetition or duplication of data and
each unit on the data base or register was filled
only once.
4. Logical consistency: through this type of editing
connections between data fields or variables are
taken into account.
5. Outliers: this type of editing helps detect values
that are too extreme or unusual so that they can
be verified and checked.
Stages of Data Editing
Stage 1:
Rules are set for editing. This stage is further
subdivided into two steps.
• In step one, instructions are provided to desk editors
who then check the data for coherence and
consistency.
• In step two, rules are set by establishing logical
relations between the variables according to various
criteria. This set of rules is called automated
validation rules and this type of editing seeks to
detect errors during data entry and to screen them.
Stages of Data Editing cntd…
Stage2:
The manual desk editing stage is a traditional method that
is put into effect by a specialized editing team. The data,(if)
on paper is checked after the data has been collected and
before it is fed into the data bases. If however, electronic
means have been used to collect the data, the forms
entered into the database are revised individually.
The automated data editing method makes use of
computer programs and systems for checking the data all
at once after it has been entered electronically. These
programs and systems contain Audit rules which validate
the data, detect errors and determine unacceptable
responses.
Limitations of Data Editing
1. Data editing can be influenced by the amount of

time available, the budget, the presence or
absence of other resources and also by the group
of people involved in the editing process.
2. Follow up with the respondents is of critical

importance in the data editing process because
they are often the best source of information in
many cases.
Limitations of Data Editing
3. Some types of data do not require extensive editing,

therefore it would be better to keep in mind the
intended uses of data and make sure that the more
important part of data iz kept free from all errors.
4. if you plan to edit your data manually, you must

develop and document the methods that are to
followed. Your team must be trained, a method
must be established to check their work progress
and the impact of the edits on the original data
must also be assessed.
Coding
What is a Code?
A code in research methodology is a short word
or phrase describing the meaning and context of
the whole sentence, phrase or paragraph. The
code makes the process of data analysis easier.
Numerical quantities can be assigned to codes
and thus these quantities can be interpreted.
Codes help quantify qualitative data and give
meaning to raw data.
Coding
Data coding is the process of deriving codes from

the observed data. In qualitative research the
data is either obtained from observations,
interviews or from questionnaires.
Purpose of Coding
The purpose of data coding is to bring out the

essence and meaning of the data that
respondents have provided. The data coder
extract preliminary codes from the observed
data, the preliminary codes are further filtered
and refined to obtain more accurate precise and
concise codes.
Later, in the evaluation of data the researcher
assigns values, percentages or other numerical
quantities to these codes to draw inferences.
Purpose of Coding
It should be kept in mind that the purpose of

data coding is not to just to eliminate excessive
data but to summarize it meaningfully. The data
coder should ascertain that none of the
important points of the data have been lost in
data coding.
Types of Codes
1. Preliminary codes
When data coder assigns codes to the observed data,
he cannot manage to assign well-refined codes in the
first instance. He has to assign some preliminary codes
first so that the data has become concise. He later on,
further refines the codes to get the final codes. It must
be kept in mind that codes are not the final words or
phrases on the basis of which evaluation will be made.
The researcher will filter the preliminary codes and
then the final codes. He needs a pattern on the basis of
which he can categorize the human behavior, action or
likes and dislikes.
Types of Codes
2. Final codes
The final codes will help you observe a better pattern
in the data. This pattern is necessary to reach the final
evaluation or analysis stage of the data. The final codes
in data coding mean finding out meaningful words and
phrases from the observed data. The respondents
often do not choose meaningful words in their
responses. The coder needs to extract the meaning out
of the respondent’s wording. The codes in their final
stage are like topics and themes, these themes
generate a whole discussion to get the final results.
Tabular Representation of Data
Data Representation
• Textual
• Tabular
• Diagramatic
Textual Representation
In such form of presentation, data is simply

mentioned as mere text, that is generally in a
paragraph. This is commonly used when the data is
not very large.
This kind of representation is useful when we are
looking to supplement qualitative statements with
some data. For this purpose, the data should not be
voluminously represented in tables or diagrams. It
just has to be a statement that serves as a fitting
evidence to our qualitative evidence and helps the
reader to get an idea of the scale of a phenomenon.
Textual Representation: Example-1
Textual Representation: Example-2
The 2002 earthquake proved to be a mass

murderer of humans. As many as 10,000 citizens
have been reported dead”.
Tabular Representation
A table facilitates representation of even large

amounts of data in an attractive, easy to read and
organized manner.
The data is organized in rows and columns. This is

one of the most widely used forms of presentation
of data since data tables are easy to construct and
read.
Components of Data Tables
1. Table Number: Each table should have a specific

table number for ease of access and locating. This
number can be readily mentioned anywhere
which serves as a reference and leads us directly
to the data mentioned in that particular table.
2. Title: A table must contain a title that clearly tells

the readers about the data it contains, time period
of study, place of study and the nature
of classification of data.
Components of Data Tables contd…
3. Headnotes: A headnote further aids in the

purpose of a title and displays more information
about the table. Generally, headnotes present the
units of data in brackets at the end of a table title.
4. Stubs: These are titles of the rows in a table. Thus
a stub display information about the data
contained in a particular row.
5. Caption: A caption is the title of a column in the
data table. In fact, it is a counterpart if a stub and
indicates the information contained in a column.
6. Body or field: The body of a table is the content of

a table in its entirety. Each item in a body is known
as a ‘cell’.
7. Footnotes: Footnotes are rarely used. In effect,
they supplement the title of a table if required.
8. Source: When using data obtained from a
secondary source, this source has to be mentioned
below the footnote.
Construction of Data Tables
1. The title should be in accordance with the

objective of study: The title of a table should
provide a quick insight into the table.
2. Comparison: If there might arise a need to
compare any two rows or columns then these
might be kept close to each other.
3. Alternative location of stubs: If the rows in a data
table are lengthy, then the stubs can be placed on
the right-hand side of the table.
Construction of Data Tables contd…
4. Headings: Headings should be written in a

singular form. For example, ‘good’ must be used
instead of ‘goods’.
5. Footnote: A footnote should be given only if
needed.
6. Size of columns: Size of columns must be uniform
and symmetrical.
Construction of Data Tables contd…
7. Use of abbreviations: Headings and sub-headings

should be free of abbreviations.
8. Units: There should be a clear specification of

units above the columns.
Advantages of Tabular Presentation
1. Ease of representation: A large amount of data

can be easily confined in a data table. Evidently, it
is the simplest form of data presentation.
2. Ease of analysis: Data tables are frequently used

for statistical analysis like calculation of central
tendency, dispersion etc.
Advantages of Tabular Presentation contd…
3. Helps in comparison: In a data table, the rows and

columns which are required to be compared can
be placed next to each other. To point out, this
facilitates comparison as it becomes easy to
compare each value.
4. Economical: Construction of a data table is fairly
easy and presents the data in a manner which is
really easy on the eyes of a reader. Moreover, it
saves time as well as space.
Classification of Data and Tabular Presentation
1. Qualitative Classification
In this classification, data in a table is classified on
the basis of qualitative attributes. In other words,
if the data contained attributes that cannot be
quantified like rural-urban, boys-girls etc. it can be
identified as a qualitative classification of data.
Qualitative Classification
2. Quantitative Classification
In quantitative classification, data is classified on
basis of quantitative attributes.
Quantitative Classification
3. Temporal Classification
Here data is classified according to time. Thus
when data is mentioned with respect to different
time frames, we term such a classification as
temporal.
Temporal Classification
4. Spatial Classification
When data is classified according to a location, it
becomes a spatial classification.
Spatial Classification
Frequency & Frequency Tables
Frequency
The frequency of a particular data value is the

number of times the data value occurs.
For example, if four students have a score of 80 in

mathematics, and then the score of 80 is said to
have a frequency of 4. The frequency of a data
value is often represented by f.
Frequency Table
A frequency table is constructed by arranging

collected data values in ascending order of
magnitude with their corresponding frequencies.
Example
The marks awarded for an assignment set for a

Year 8 class of 20 students were as follows:
6 7 5 7 7 8 7 6 9 7
4 10 6 8 8 9 5 6 4 8
Present this information in a frequency table.
Creating Frequency Table
Step 1:
Construct a table with three columns. The first
column shows what is being arranged in ascending
order (i.e. the marks). The lowest mark is 4. So,
start from 4 in the first column as shown below.
Step 2:
Go through the list of marks. The first mark in the
list is 6, so put a tally mark against 6 in the second
column. The second mark in the list is 7, so put a
tally mark against 7 in the second column. The
third mark in the list is 5, so put a tally mark
against 5 in the third column as shown below.
Step 3:
Count the number of tally marks for each mark
and write it in third column. The finished
frequency table is as follows:
Class Intervals (or Groups)
• When the set of data values are spread out, it is

difficult to set up a frequency table for every data
value as there will be too many rows in the table.
So we group the data into class intervals (or groups)
to help us organise, interpret and analyse the data.
• Ideally, we should have between five and ten rows
in a frequency table. Bear this in mind when
deciding the size of the class interval (or group).
• Each group starts at a data value that is a multiple of
that group.
Class Intervals (or Groups)
For example, if the size of the group is 5, then the

groups should start at 5, 10, 15, 20 etc. Likewise, if
the size of the group is 10, then the groups should
start at 10, 20, 30, 40 etc.
The frequency of a group (or class interval) is the

number of data values that fall in the range
specified by that group (or class interval).
Example
The number of calls from motorists per day for
roadside service was recorded for the month of
December 2003. The results were as follows:
Set up a frequency table for this set of data values.

Step 1:
Construct a table with three columns, and then
write the data groups or class intervals in the first
column. The size of each group is 40. So, the
groups will start at 0, 40, 80, 120, 160 and 200 to
include all of the data. Note that in fact we need 6
groups (1 more than we first thought).
Step 2:
Go through the list of data values. For the first
data value in the list, 28, place a tally mark against
the group 0-39 in the second column. For the
second data value in the list, 122, place a tally
mark against the group 120-159 in the second
column. For the third data value in the list, 217,
place a tally mark against the group 200-239 in the
second column.
Step 3:
Count the number of tally marks for each group
and write it in the third column.
Graphical Representation of Data
Graphic Representation
Apart from diagrams, Graphic presentation is
another way of the presentation of data and
information. Usually, graphs are used to present
time series and frequency distributions.
Construction of a Graph
The graphic presentation of data and information

offers a quick and simple way of understanding
the features and drawing comparisons.
Further, it is an effective analytical tool and a

graph can help us in finding the mode, median,
etc.
Construction of a Graph contd…
We can locate a point in a plane using two

mutually perpendicular lines – the X-axis (the
horizontal line) and the Y-axis (the vertical line).
Their point of intersection is the Origin.
We can locate the position of a point in terms of

its distance from both these axes. For example, if
a point P is 3 units away from the Y-axis and 5
units away from the X-axis
Construction of a Graph contd…
General Rules for Graphic Presentation of Data
Suitable Title – Ensure that you give a suitable

title to the graph which clearly indicates the
subject for which you are presenting it.
Unit of Measurement – Clearly state the unit of

measurement below the title.
Suitable Scale – Choose a suitable scale so that

you can represent the entire data in an accurate
manner.
Index – Include a brief index which explains the

different colors and shades, lines and designs that
you have used in the graph. Also, include a scale
of interpretation for better understanding.
Data Sources – Wherever possible, include the

sources of information at the bottom of the
graph.
Keep it Simple – You should construct a graph

which even a layman (without any exposure in the
areas of statistics or mathematics) can
understand.
Neat – A graph is a visual aid for the presentation

of data and information. Therefore, you must
keep it neat and attractive. Choose the right size,
right lettering, and appropriate lines, colors,
dashes, etc.
Merits of a Graph
• The graph presents data in a manner which is

easier to understand.
• It allows us to present statistical data in an
attractive manner as compared to tables. Users
can understand the main features, trends, and
fluctuations of the data at a glance.
• A graph saves time.
• It allows the viewer to compare data relating to
two different time-periods or regions.
Merits of a Graph contd...
• The viewer does not require prior knowledge of

mathematics or statistics to understand a graph.
• We can use a graph to locate the mode, median,

and mean values of the data.
• It is useful in forecasting, interpolation, and

extrapolation of data.
Limitations of a Graph
• A graph lacks complete accuracy of facts.

• It depicts only a few selected characteristics of the
data.
• We cannot use a graph in support of a statement.
• A graph is not a substitute for tables.
• Usually, laymen find it difficult to understand and
interpret a graph.
• Typically, a graph shows the unreasonable
tendency of the data and the actual values are not
clear.
Bar Charts
A bar chart is a graph with rectangular bars. The

graph usually compares different categories.
Although the graphs can be plotted vertically (bars

standing up) or horizontally (bars laying flat from
left to right), the most usual type of bar graph is
vertical.
The horizontal (x) axis represents the categories; The
vertical (y) axis represents a value for those
categories. In the graph below, the values are
percentages.
Graph: Example
Types of Bar Charts
1. Grouped Bar Graph
A grouped bar graph is a way to show information

about sub-groups of the main categories.
When there are only two sub-groups (as in the

above image), the graph is called a double bar
graph. It’s possible to have as many sub-groups as
you like, although too many can make the graph
look cluttered.
1. Grouped Bar Graph
Types of Bar Charts
2. Stacked Bar Chart

A stacked bar chart also shows sub-groups, but
the sub-groups are stacked on the same bar.
2. Stacked Bar Chart
Types of Bar Charts
3. Segmented Bar Charts

A type of stacked bar chart where each bar shows
100% of the discrete value. They should
represent 100% on each of the bars or else it’s
going to be an ordinary stacked bar chart.
3. Segmented Bar Charts
Histograms vs Bar Charts
Bar Charts are good when your data is

in categories (such as "Comedy", "Drama", etc).
But when you have continuous data (such as a

person's height) then use a Histogram.
It is best to leave gaps between the bars of a Bar

Graph, so it doesn't look like a Histogram.

Bar Charts vs Histograms
Pie Charts
A pie chart is a circular graph that shows the

relative contribution that different categories
contribute to an overall total.
A wedge of the circle represents each category’s

contribution, such that the graph resembles a pie
that has been cut into different sized slices.
What data can be presented using a pie chart?
Pie charts are a visual way of displaying data that

might otherwise be given in a small table.
Pie charts are useful for displaying data that are

classified into nominal or ordinal categories. Nominal
data are categorised according to descriptive or
qualitative information such as county of birth or type
of pet owned. Ordinal data are similar but the different
categories can also be ranked, for example in a survey
people may be asked to say whether they classed
something as very poor, poor, fair, good, very good.
What data can be presented using a pie chart?
Pie charts are generally used to show percentage

or proportional data and usually the percentage
represented by each category is provided next to
the corresponding slice of pie.
Pie charts are good for displaying data for around

6 categories or fewer. When there are more
categories it is difficult for the eye to distinguish
between the relative sizes of the different sectors
and so the chart becomes difficult to interpret.
Pie Chart
When you should use a pie chart?
Pie charts have a fairly narrow use-case that is

encapsulated particularly well by its definition.
In order to use a pie chart, you must have some kind of

whole amount that is divided into a number of distinct
parts.
Your primary objective in a pie chart should be to

compare each group’s contribution to the whole, as
opposed to comparing groups to each other. If the above
points are not satisfied, the pie chart is not appropriate,
and a different plot type should be used instead.
Limit the number of pie slices
Pie charts with a large number of slices can be

difficult to read. It can be difficult to see the
smallest slices, and it can be difficult to choose
enough colors to make all of the slices distinct.
Recommendations vary, but if you have more than
about five categories, you might want to think
about using a different chart type. As another
option, you might consider lumping small slices
into a single ‘other’ slice, colored in a neutral gray.
Limit the number of pie slices
Avoid distorting effects
Reading a pie chart accurately requires that the slices’ areas,

arc lengths, and angles all point to an accurate
representation of the data. While avoiding 3-d effects is a
good idea for any plot, it is especially important for pie
charts. Squashing or stretching the circle or adding
unnecessary depth can easily distort how large each slice
compares to the whole.
Another distortion can come from the ‘exploded’ pie chart,

where slices are pulled out from the center for emphasis.
This emphasis comes with a cost, where the gaps can make
it more difficult to actually gauge the part-to-whole
comparison.
Avoid distorting effects
Using pie charts to compare groups to one another
Comparing values across multiple pie charts
Hypothesis
An hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It
describes in concrete (rather than theoretical) terms
what you expect will happen in your study. Not all
studies have hypotheses. Sometimes a study is designed
to be exploratory.
There is no formal hypothesis, and perhaps the purpose

of the study is to explore some area more thoroughly in
order to develop some specific hypothesis or prediction
that can be tested in future research. A single study may
have one or many hypotheses.

Qualities of Good Hypothesis
• Closest to observable things
• Simplicity
• Clarity
• Testability
• Relevant to Problem
• Specific
• Relevant to available Techniques
• Fruitful for new Discoveries
• Consistency & Harmony

Null Hypothesis

Reports
Each organization has its own specific requirements for
particular kinds of reports.
Keeping your audience's needs in mind will help you decide
• The level of formality (in structure and tone) of your report

• The length of the report
• What kinds of data to include (tables, figures, general graphs, or
pictures)
• How much to explain
• What positions to defend
• The visual sophistication required
151
Purpose of Reports
Reports communicate information which has been
compiled as a result of research and analysis of
data and of issues.
Reports can cover a wide range of topics, but

usually focus on transmitting information with a
clear purpose, to a specific audience.
Reports transmit information to decision makers:

experts and technicians, executives, and laypeople.
152
Purpose of Reports
Reports help in making decisions and act on

the results presented; therefore: be concise;
be thorough and complete.
153
Report Writing
154
Body of Report
• Introduction
• Summary or background
• Methods/procedures
• Results
• Discussion of results
• Conclusions
• Recommendations
155
Introduction
The introduction states the problem and its significance,
states the technical goals of the work, and usually
contains background information that the reader needs to
know in order to understand the report.
The introduction might include any or all of the following.
• Problems that gave rise to the investigation

• The purpose of the assignment
• History or theory behind the investigation Literature on
the subject
• Methods of investigation
156
Summary or background
This section gives the theory or previous work

on which the experimental work is based if
that information has not been included in the
introduction.
157
Methods/Procedures
This section describes the major pieces of
equipment used and recaps the essential step of
what was done.
A common mistake in reporting procedures is to

use the present tense. This use of the present
tense results in what is sometimes called “the
cookbook approach” because the description
sounds like a set of instructions. Avoid this and use
the past tense in your “methods/procedures”
sections.
158
Results
This section presents the data or the end

product of the study, test, or project and
includes tables and/or graphs and a brief
interpretation of what the data show.
When interpreting your data, be sure to

consider your reader, what their situation is
and how the data you have collected will
pertain to them.
159
Discussion of results
This section explains what the results show,

analyzes uncertainties, notes significant trends,
compares results with theory, evaluates
limitations or the chance for faulty
interpretation, or discusses assumptions.
It is important to remember that when you are

discussing the results, you must be specific.
Avoid vague statements such as “the results
were very promising.”
160
Conclusions
This section interprets the results and is a

product of thinking about the implications of
the results.
Conclusions are often confused with results. A

conclusion is a generalization about the
problem that can reasonably be deduced from
the results.
161
Recommendations
The recommendations are the direction or

actions that you think must be taken or
additional work that is need to expand the
knowledge obtained in your report.
In this part of your report, it is essential to

understand your reader.
162
Differences between Results, Conclusions, and
Recommendations?
• Results: The shoes got soaking wet, the leather cracked as

it dried, and the soles separated from the tops.
• Conclusions: These shoes were not waterproof and not

meant to be worn when walking in water. In addition, the
high price of the shoes is not closely linked with durability.
• Recommendations: In the future, the wearer of this type of

shoe should watch out for puddles, not just treetops. When
buying shoes, the wearer should determine the extent of
the shoes’ waterproofing and/or any warranties on
durability.
163
Types of Reports
164
Types of Reports
1. Preliminary Reports
2. Progress Reports
3. Periodic Reports
165
Preliminary Reports
• Problem or Needs Analyses Report
• Project Plans
• Comparison Reports
• Feasibility Reports
• Recommendation Reports
• Proposals
• White Papers
• Marketing Plan
166
Problem or Needs Analyses Report
A problem or needs-analysis report—a very

preliminary piece of writing—examines a
particular issue that the client faces.
A problem or needs analysis is particularly

appropriate when the need or problem is
complex or ill defined.
167
Project Plans
A project plan may be part of a proposal, or it may be

a report of its own. The purpose of a project plan is to
conceptualize, organize, and plan a project, usually
with two audiences in mind:
• The project participants themselves, for whom such a

report acts as a guide, will be contracted to complete
tasks at specific times.
• Supervisors or others in the organization, whom the
report seeks to persuade and inform, allot support
and resources for the project.
168
Comparison Reports
A comparison report examines two or more

options and performs a "relative advantages"
analysis to determine which option would best
serve the client.
Use a comparative format when there are

several serious alternatives that should be
considered.
169
Feasibility Reports
A feasibility report may respond to a single

question or recommend a specific option.
It may also apply several criteria to that option

and make a judgment as to whether it would
be in the best interest to implement the
option.
170
Recommendation Reports
Recommendation reports advise on what

specific action should be taken by an
organization.
They are composed at the end of a process of

inquiry and notify the reader that a certain
course of action should be followed. The
argument of a recommendation report can be
developed in numerous ways.
171
Proposals
Proposals include forms, letters, memos, and more

formal reports. In some companies and contexts
(such as in the construction industry), a "proposal"
refers to a work contract with a customer.
Proposals can also take the form of the "long

proposal," a formal document that proposes to
complete a future project and that requests
organizational support. Often such proposals are in
response to an RFP (Request for Proposal)
172
White Papers
White papers provide background for decisions.
These reports can be internal and are often

profoundly influenced by the particular
discipline of their context.
They can present investigations of new

methods or technologies or report on new
sales solutions.
173
Marketing Plan
Companies use marketing plans to affirm and to

revise their current approaches to marketing
products and services.
These marketing plans review the current

strategy (or marketing principles) used to market
one or more of the company's products/services.
Tactics used to enact that marketing strategy are

discussed in light of current market conditions.
174
2. Progress Reports
• A progress report informs readers of the status of a
project-in-progress. Its primary informational mission is
expressed in two ways:
• Informing the reader of the status of the project—is it

proceeding as planned? is it on schedule? have there
been any significant changes in the scope or
organization of the project?
• Presenting preliminary findings— what initial data do

you have to report? what tentative conclusions can you
offer?
175
Progress Reports
• Test Reports
• Strategic Plans
• Business Plan
• Design Reports
176
Test Reports
A test report presents the conclusions from the test of a
product or service and usually recommends changes in the
product or service.
A test report is often written with a social science model of

organization:
• Identification of problem or question to be addressed

• Review of relevant literature or previous test findings
• Description of test methodology
• Data presentation and analysis
• Conclusions
• Recommended changes
177
Strategic Plans
A strategic plan is a comprehensive report

analyzing the current situation in a
department or company. It recommends a
plan to follow over some future course of
time.
Strategic plans are a favored document in

companies that adopt management by
objectives approaches to evaluation.
178
Business Plan
A business plan is a formal report developed

by new businesses to raise start-up capital or
by existing businesses that need to raise new
capital.
179
Design Reports
Design reports describe in detail the

implementation of a solution to an
engineering problem and the testing
methodology that has been applied to draw
conclusions about the effectiveness of a
solution.
Design reports are often assigned to help

complete advanced engineering projects.
180
Design Reports
Design reports are developed as formal

reports with front material (cover
letter/memo, title page, table of contents,
table of figures, abstract), introduction,
background of the project, circuit design,
supporting analysis, data, discussion,
summary, conclusions, and appendices.
181
3. Periodic Reports
In almost every, certain kinds of reports are

generated periodically, either on a regular
schedule, such as annual performance reviews,
or when necessary, such as trip reports.
Periodic reports often follow clear and fairly

rigid formats and can range from very brief
(most trip reports) to extensive and formal
(corporate annual reports).
182
Periodic Reports
• Annual Reports
• Performance Reports
• Activity Reports
• Trip Reports
• Presentation Reports
183
Annual Reports
An annual report informs stockholders and others

outside the company about the company's
achievements and financial performance in a given
year. Such a report usually serves both a promotional
and an informative purpose.
The report provides basic financial information about

the status of an organization and addresses the
question of a company's profitability and degree of
financial success—but it also attempts to instill some
confidence in the stockholders that their investment is
a worthy one.
184
Performance Reports
A performance report evaluates individual or

organizational performance over a given
period of time. When applied to employees,
such a report might be called a "personnel
evaluation."
Most companies develop forms that help in

developing a score, and many also have the
supervisor write a summary paragraph for
each segment of the evaluation.
185
Performance Reports
Employees produce activity reports to identify

what they have accomplished over a period of
time (usually six months or a year). These
reports often help employers to assemble the
employee's performance evaluation.
The activity report, therefore, allows

employees to craft their own portraits. If
successful, they influence how bosses view
their employees' work.
186
Trip Reports
Trip reports are used to justify activities

conducted away from the work site.
Sometimes it provides information about a
meeting or conference to others in the
organization who did not attend.
Other times it reports on visits to customers.

Further, if it is form based, the trip report may
also report expenses.
187
Presentation Reports
Presentation reports are an emerging

category.
Using PowerPoint software and its bundled

content templates, some busy groups use the
slides and notes function to create a report
that is filed with a brief orienting memo.
188
Summary

Youtube Links

Daily Quiz
Q1. Hypothesis cannot be stated in
A. Declarative terms
B. Null and question form terms
C. General terms
D. Directional terms
Q2. Formulation of hypothesis may not be necessary in case of

E. A Survey studies
F. Fact finding (historical) studies
G. Experimental studies
H. Normative studies

Daily Quiz
Q3. In this form of presentation, he data is organized in rows and
columns.
A. Tabular
B. Textual
C. Graphical
D. None of the above
Q4. Which of the following is not a part of a table?

E. Head note
F. Footnote
G. Stub
H. Histogram

Weekly Assignment

MCQ s
Q1. A good hypothesis should be

A. Formulated in such a way that it can be tested by the data
B. Precise, specific and consistent with most known facts
C. Of limited scope and should not have global significance
D. All of these
Q2. While writing research report a researcher Must arrange it in

E. Logical, topical and chronological order
F. Must not use the numerical figures in numbers in the beginning of
sentences
G. Must compare his results with those of the other studies
H. All of the above
MCQ s
Q3. Which of the following is a method of presentation of data?

A. Tabular
B. Textual
C. Graphical
D. All of the above
Q4. A particular data value which occurs number of times is known as.
E. Frequency
F. Cumulative frequency
G. Mean
H. Median

MCQ s
Q5. Which if the following is a way to show information about sub-

groups of the main categories.
A. Grouped bar graph
B. Stacked bar graph
C. Segmented bar graph
D. None of these
Q6. A type of stacked bar chart where each bar shows 100% of the
discrete value, is known as
E. Grouped bar graph
F. Stacked bar graph
G.Segmented bar graph
H. None of these
Old Question Papers

Old Question Papers

Old Question Papers

Old Question Papers

Old Question Papers

Expected Questions for University Exam

Summary

References
1) Research Methodology, C R Kothari, New Age International.
2) Business Research Methods by Donald Cooper & Pamela Schindler, TMGH, 9th Edition.
3) Business Research Methods by Alan Bryman& Emma Bell, Oxford University Press,
2ndEdition.
4) Business Research Methods by T N Srivastava & Shailaja Rao, TMH Publication,
2ndEdition.
https://conjointly.com/kb/hypotheses-explained/
http://studylecturenotes.com/characteristics-qualities-of-a-good-hypothesis/

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Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater Noida

10. Daily Quiz

12. Weekly Assignment

14. Expected Questions Papers

11/19/2022 Harsh Awasthi KMB203 (BRM) Unit-5

11/19/2022 Harsh Awasthi KMB203 (BRM) Unit-5

Harsh Awasthi KMB203 (BRM) Unit-5

CO2: Applying relevant research techniques.

CO3: Understanding relevant scaling & measurement techniques and

CO4: Synthesizing different techniques of coding, editing, tabulation

CO5: Evaluating statistical analysis which includes various parametric

S No CO/PO PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6

*1=High, *2=Medium, *3=Low

11/19/2022 Harsh Awasthi KMB203 (BRM) Unit-5

• To learn & present data in tabular form.

11/19/2022 Harsh Awasthi KMB203 (BRM) Unit-5

Data Analysis is the process of systematically

According to Shamoo and Resnik (2003) various

An essential component of ensuring data

Integrity issues are just as relevant to analysis of

• Having the necessary skills to analyze

• Manner of presenting data

Data editing is defined as the process involving

Data editing can be performed manually, with

The process through which the data is reviewed

2. Range: verifies that data within a field fall

3. Duplicate data entry: this helps ensure that

1. Data editing can be influenced by the amount of

2. Follow up with the respondents is of critical

3. Some types of data do not require extensive editing,

4. if you plan to edit your data manually, you must

Data coding is the process of deriving codes from

The purpose of data coding is to bring out the

It should be kept in mind that the purpose of

In such form of presentation, data is simply

The 2002 earthquake proved to be a mass

A table facilitates representation of even large

The data is organized in rows and columns. This is

1. Table Number: Each table should have a specific

2. Title: A table must contain a title that clearly tells

3. Headnotes: A headnote further aids in the

6. Body or field: The body of a table is the content of

1. The title should be in accordance with the

4. Headings: Headings should be written in a

7. Use of abbreviations: Headings and sub-headings

8. Units: There should be a clear specification of

1. Ease of representation: A large amount of data

2. Ease of analysis: Data tables are frequently used

3. Helps in comparison: In a data table, the rows and

The frequency of a particular data value is the

For example, if four students have a score of 80 in

A frequency table is constructed by arranging

The marks awarded for an assignment set for a

• When the set of data values are spread out, it is

For example, if the size of the group is 5, then the

The frequency of a group (or class interval) is the

Set up a frequency table for this set of data values.

The graphic presentation of data and information

Further, it is an effective analytical tool and a

We can locate a point in a plane using two

We can locate the position of a point in terms of

Suitable Title – Ensure that you give a suitable

Unit of Measurement – Clearly state the unit of

1=High, 2=Medium, *3=Low