Chemistry

Unit 1
Module 1
 Recap
 Subatomic particles

 Atomic and Mass Number

 History of the Atom

 The Bohr Model

 Energy levels

 Electron Configuration
1. Write the electronic configuration in terms of s, p and d of the following species:

Energy Levels Sub levels

(a) N

(b) 1 1s

(c) 2 2s 2p

(d) 𝐶𝑢 3 3s 3p 3d

(e) Ca
4 4s 4p 4d 4f

https://youtu.be/NIwcDnFjj98
1. Write the electronic configuration in terms of s, p and d of the following species:
(a) N

Energy Levels Sub levels

(b)
loses 3 electrons 1 1s

2 2s 2p
(c)
loses 2 electrons 3 3s 3p 3d

4 4s 4p 4d 4f
(d) 𝐶𝑢

(e) Ca
https://youtu.be/NIwcDnFjj98
Topics to be Covered
• Ionization Energy
• Factors Affecting Ionization Energy
• Evidence for Shells & Subshells
• Electron Affinity

• Radioactivity
• Uses
• Emitions
 Ionization
What is ionization energy?

First ionization energy of an element is the energy needed to convert one mole of
its gaseous atoms into gaseous ions with a single positive charge. Example:  +

The energy required to remove each successive electron is called the second, third
etc. ionization energy. All ionization energies are positive because it requires
energy to remove an electron.
 Factors Influencing the Ionization Energies of Elements

 Atomic Radii
As the distance between the outer electron and the nucleus increases, the nuclear attraction for the outer electron
decreases and the ionization energy decreases.

 Nuclear Charge
As the nuclear charge increases, the attraction of the nucleus for the outer electron increases and the ionization energy
increases. It must be noted that the atomic radii and electron shielding outweigh the effect of the nuclear charge.

 Shielding Effect
The outer electrons are shielded from the attraction of the nucleus by the repelling effect of the inner electrons. As the
shielding effect of the inner electrons become more effective, the ionization energy decreases
 Ionization Energy as Evidence for Shells & Subshells
Evidence for discrete energy levels comes from the successive ionization energies required to remove all electrons from an
atom.
Successive ionization energies of an element increase in the order
IE1 < IE2 < IE3 < IE4.

Removal of the first electron from the neutral atom gives a smaller positively charged ion. Removal of an electron from this
smaller positively charged ion will require more energy so
IE2 > IE1.

Successive ionization energies will increase since the electron is being removed from a more positive ion. The greatest
difference between successive ionization energies for a given atom occurs after the removal of all the outer valence electrons.

Here is the data for the first four ionization energies of sodium.
As is expected, the values of the successive ionization energies increase
as the species produced from the ionization process becomes
progressively more positively charged and smaller.
 Electron Affinity
The first electron affinity refers to the energy released on
the addition of one electron to a neutral atom, the second
electron affinity refers to the energy change when a second
electron is added to the negatively charged ion, and so on.
Ionization Energy
https://youtu.be/hePb00CqvP0
 Radioactivity
Atoms with unstable nuclei are called radioactive isotopes.

The unstable nuclei becomes stable by ejecting α particles, β particles

and γ rays
 Uses of Radioactive Isotopes
 Radiotherapy
The ionizing effect of radiation can be used to kill cancer cells in the body. This is known as ‘radiotherapy’. Either a beam of radiation is
targeted onto the cancer so that surrounding tissue is not so much affected, or tiny ‘seeds’ of nuclides producing short-range radiations are
implanted directly into the tumor. X-rays and γ-rays are used, as are protons and β particles.

 Fission reactions
In the nuclear reactions called fission reactions (so-called because large nuclei split into two or more smaller fragments), large quantities of
energy are released. Fission reactions are triggered by the absorption of neutrons into susceptible nuclei such as 238U. If this absorption of
neutrons is uncontrolled and the mass of fissionable material is sufficient, then an explosion is the result. But neutrons are easily controlled,
and so the release of energy can be slowed down to make a useful, safe, power source. In many countries, nuclear power stations provide
significant proportions of the total energy supply. At present there are no nuclear power stations in the Caribbean region, though they are
common in the USA. In most cases the heat energy released by the fission reaction is used to boil water, and then the steam is used to drive
electricity generators. The downside of the process is that it is hard to dispose safely of the radioactive waste from the power station.

 Carbon-14
Carbon-14 dating is a method that provides objective age estimates for carbon-based materials that originated from living organisms. An
age could be estimated by measuring the amount of carbon-14 present in the sample and comparing this against an internationally used
reference standard
 EMITIONS
Emits α particles – mass # goes down by 4
atomic # goes down by 2

Emits β particles – mass # doesn’t change

atomic # goes up by 1
Americium-241 decays via alpha particle emission. Write the nuclear
equation to show the new element that forms when an atom of 241 95𝐴𝑚
decays via the emission of two alpha particles.

γ Emissions
241
95𝐴𝑚  42𝑎 + 237
93 𝑁𝑝 https://youtu.be/kWtgr6xJRrg
237
93𝑁𝑝  42𝑎 + 233
91 𝑃𝑎

Emits
Emitsβ
Emits βparticles
particles
Emits ββparticles
particles
14
14 14
14 0 0𝑒−
00𝑒 −−
14
14
6
6𝐶
14
𝐶
14
6 𝐶
𝐶
14
14
14
6  147
7𝑁
𝑁
7 𝑁
𝑁++
+−1
7 + −1 0
0𝑒 −
−1
−1 𝑒
−
−
66 77 −1
−1 0 −
24
24 2424 00𝑒
0𝑒−−
24
11
11𝑁𝑎
2424 𝑁𝑎
𝑁𝑎
 24
24
12 𝑀𝑔
24
12 𝑀𝑔
𝑀𝑔 ++
+ −1 0
−1 𝑒
−
−
24
11
11
11
𝑁𝑎  12
11 24
12 𝑀𝑔 + −1
12
12 𝑀𝑔
−1 0
−1
−1
𝑒 −
 That’s all for today,
See you next Thursday!!!!!