Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Part 3
The Phenomenon of Sound
REFLECTION
REFRACTION
DIFFRACTION
Law of Reflection
• Angle of Incidence = Angle of Reflection
60o 60o
Inclined incidence(not at 90o )
Incident
Transmitted
30°
Refracted
REFRACTION
• Only occurs when:
The incident angle is other than 0°
The Two Materials has different
VELOCITIES
30°
30°
Steel Water
Steel Steel
65°
30°
No Refraction Refracted
Snell’s Law
Normal
Incident I
Material 1
Material 2 Refracted
R
Perspex
There may be more than one waveform
Steel transmitted into the second material,
example: Compression and Shear
SS
Snell’s Law
If the angle of Incident is
C increased the angle of
refraction also increases
C
Steel 90° This happens at the
FIRST CRITICAL ANGLE
SC
CS
S
1st Critical Angle
C 27.4 Compression wave refracted
at 90 degrees
33
S
1st Critical Angle Calculation
C 27.2 Sine I 2730
Sine 90 5960
Perspex Sin90 1
C
Steel 2730
SinI
5960
S SinI 0.458
I 27.26
Snell’s Law
• Calculate the 1st critical angle for a
perspex/copper interface
• V Comp perspex : 2730m/sec
• V Comp copper : 4700m/sec
2730
SinI 0.5808 35.5
4700
2nd Critical Angle
C
C
57
S (Surface Wave)
90
I 57.4
Snell’s Law
C
20 Sine I Vel in Material 1
Sine R Vel in Material 2
Perspex Sine 20 2730
Steel Sine 48.3 5960
48.3 0.4580 0.4580
C
Snell’s Law
C Sine I Vel in Material 1
15
Sine R Vel in Material 2
Perspex
Steel
48.3
C
24
S
Before the 1st. Critical Angle: There
1st. are both Compression and Shear
wave in the second material
C
At the FIRST CRITICAL ANGLE
2nd. Compression wave refracted at 90°
Shear wave at 33 degrees in the
material
C S
S
Sound Generation
• Hammers (Wheel tapers)
• Magnetostrictive
• Lasers
• Piezo-electric
magnetostrictive
Piezo-Electric Effect
• When exposed to an alternating current a
crystal expands and contracts
- + + - - +
Piezo-Electric Materials
QUARTZ LITHIUM SULPHATE
• Resistant to wear • Efficient receiver
• Insoluble in water • Low electrical
• Resists ageing impedance
• Inefficient converter of • Operates on low voltage
energy • Water soluble
• Needs a relatively high • Low mechanical
voltage strength
Very rarely used nowadays • Useable only up to 30ºC
Used mainly in medical
Polarized Crystals
X X
Probes
• The frequency of the probe depends on
the THICKNESS of the crystal
• Formula for frequency:
Ff = V / 2t
Where Ff = the Fundamental frequency
V = the velocity in the crystal
t = the thickness of the crystal
Fundamental frequency is the frequency of the material ( crystal )
where at that frequency the material will vibrate.
Probes
• The Thinner the crystal the Higher the frequency
• Which of the followings has the Thinnest crystal ?
1 MHz Compression probe
5 MHz Compression probe
10 MHz Shear probe
25 MHz Shear probe
25 MHz Shear
Probe
Probe Design
• Compression Probe Electrical
– Normal probe connectors
– 0°
Housing
Damping
Transducer
Probe Design
• Shear Probe
– Angle probe
Backing
medium
Damping
Transducer
Probe
Shoe
Perspex wedge
Probe Design
Advantages
Twin Crystal • Can be focused
Transmitter Receiver • Measure thin plate
• Near surface
resolution
Disadvantages
• Difficult to use on
curved surfaces
• Sizing small defects
• Signal amplitude /
Separator / Focusing
lens focal spot length
Insulator
Ultrasonic Displays
• A-Scan
• B-Scan End View
• C-Scan Plan View
• D-Scan Side View
B
Ultrasonic Displays
• C scan
The Plan View Display
C
Ultrasonic Displays
• D scan
The Side View Display
D
Ultrasonic Test Methods
• Pulse Echo
• Through Transmission
• Transmission with Reflection
(pulse echo techniques where the transmitter is
separate from the receiver - e.g. tandem testing, time
of flight)
Pulse Echo Technique
• Single probe sends
and receives sound
• Gives an indication of
defect depth and
dimensions
Defect Orientation
ONLY DEFECTS HAVING A SUITABLY ORIENTATED
REFLECTING SURFACE CAN BE DETECTED BY PULSE
ECHO METHODS!!
Presence of defect
indicated by
reduction in
transmission signal
No indication of
defect location
Through Transmission Technique
Advantages Disadvantages
• Less attenuation • Defect not located
• No probe ringing • Defect can’t be
• No dead zone identified
• Orientation does not • Vertical defects
matter don’t show
• Must be automated
• Need access to both
surfaces
Transmission with Reflection
T R
TANDEM TESTING
Transmission with Reflection
T R
TANDEM TESTING
Automated Inspections
• Pulse Echo
• Through Transmission
• Transmission with Reflection
• Contact scanning
• Gap scanning
• Immersion testing
Gap Scanning
• Probe held a fixed
distance above the
surface (1 or 2mm)
• Couplant is fed into
the gap
Immersion Testing
• Component is placed in a water filled
tank
• Item is scanned with a probe at a fixed
distance above the surface
Immersion Testing
Immersion Testing
Water
path
distance