Unit -3 : Energy

Storage and Power

Electronics Converters
 Cluster –III
Energy Storage

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 hello!

I am

P.G.R

I am here because I love to give presentations.

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 Contents

 Energy Storage Requirements in Hybrid and Electric

Vehicles
 Battery based energy storage and its analysis
 Fuel Cell based energy storage and its analysis
 Super Capacitor based energy storage and its analysis
 Flywheel based energy storage and its analysis.

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 Fuel (vs) Battery

▸ For fuel tank, ▸ Battery capacity deteriorates whether it is

costs are low use or unuse.
▸ life is long ▸ Life is limited and costs are high
○ 700 cycles to 3000 cycles of charge –
discharge
○ 6 to 10 years of calendar life
○ 15000 to 20000 Rs per kwh

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 What about costs of energy/fuel?

▸ Petrol costs are considerable Rs100 per litre

▸ Electricity costs are much less Rs 5 to 8 per/kwh

What is the consumption of petrol/electricity per km?

○ Type of vehicle
○ Vehicle efficiency
○ Typical drive cycle

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 Life of battery dependent on

▸ Charge-Discharge rate( C-Rate)

▸ Temperature of charge, discharge and storage
▸ Depth of discharge (DOD)

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What is a battery ?

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 What is a battery?

▸ A battery consists of two or more electric cells joined

together.
▸ The cells convert chemical energy to electrical energy.
▸ The cells consist of positive and negative electrodes
joined by an electrolyte.
▸ It is the chemical reaction between the electrodes and the
electrolyte which generates DC electricity.
▸ Rechargeable batteries
○ Chemical reaction can be reversed by reversing the current
(Lead-Acid battery)

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 “
Batteries are specified by three main
characteristics: chemistry, voltage and specific
energy (capacity).
▸ A starter battery also provides cold cranking
amps (CCA), which relates to the ability to
provide high current at cold temperatures.

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 Batteries

▸ Lead acid ▸ There are also more recent

▸ Nickel iron developments of batteries
that can be mechanically
▸ Nickel cadmium
refuelled, the main ones
▸ Nickel metal hydride being aluminium-air and
▸ Lithium polymer zinc-air.
▸ Lithium ion
▸ Sodium sulphur and sodium
metal chloride.

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 1.
Overview of Battery
Let’s start with the first set of slides

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 “
From the electric vehicle designer’s point of view
the battery can be treated as a ‘black
box’ which has a range of performance criteria.

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 Performance criteria

▸ Specific energy ▸ Self-discharge rates

▸ Energy density ▸ Number of life cycles
▸ Specific power ▸ Recharge rates
▸ Typical voltages
▸ Amp hour efficiency
▸ Energy efficiency
▸ Commercial availability
▸ Cost
▸ Operating temperatures

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 Designer Criteria

▸ Ambient temperature
▸ Charge and discharge rates
▸ Battery geometry
▸ Optimum temperature
▸ Charging methods
▸ Cooling needs

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 “
However, at least a basic understanding of the
battery chemistry is very important.

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Battery parameters

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 Battery Parameters

▸ Cell and Battery Voltages ▸ Open circuit voltage and

▸ Charge capacity Terminal voltage
▸ Energy stored ▸ Practical Capacity and
Discharge rate
▸ Specific energy
▸ Battery Energy
▸ Specific power
▸ Specific energy
▸ Energy density
▸ Specific power
▸ AMPH efficiency
▸ SOC,SOD,DOD
▸ Energy efficiency
▸ Self Discharge rates
▸ Etc..
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 Cell and battery voltages

▸ All electric cells have nominal voltages which gives the

approximate voltage when the cell is delivering electrical
power.
▸ The cells can be connected in series to give the overall voltage
required.
▸ Traction batteries for electric vehicles are usually specified as 6
V or 12 V.
▸ When a current is given out, the voltage will fall; when the
battery is being charged, the voltage will rise.

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 Open circuit voltage characteristics

▸ As the battery is gradually discharged, the internal voltage

decreases, while the internal resistance increases.

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 Simple equivalent circuit model of a battery

▸ The battery is represented as

having a fixed voltage E,
but the voltage at the terminals
is a different voltage V , because
of the voltage across the
internal resistance R.

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 Cont..

▸ If the battery is being charged, then clearly the voltage will

increase by IR.
▸ In electric vehicle batteries the internal resistance should
clearly be as low as possible.
▸ However, the open circuit voltage E is not in fact constant.
▸ The voltage is also affected by the ‘state of charge’, and other
factors such as temperature.

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 Terminal voltage

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 Battery capacity

▸ Battery designed for certain energy (C) in kwh= V*Ah/1000

▸ Battery capacity comes from cell capacity defined in Amph
▸ At end of its life cycle , usable capacity=x*y*C
▸ Where x=85% of total capacity
▸ y=80% of initial capacity
▸ The effective usage of battery capacity is 0.68kwh

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 Battery capacity (or) Charge (AMPH) capacity

▸ The electric charge that a battery can supply is clearly a most

crucial parameter.
▸ The SI unit for this is the Coulomb, the charge when one Amp
flows for one second.
▸ The capacity of a battery might be, say, 10Amphours.
▸ This means it can provide 1Amp for 10
hours or 2 Amps for 5 hours, or in theory 10 Amps for 1 hour.

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▸ The capacity of the large
batteries used in electric
vehicles (traction batteries)
is usually quoted for a 5
hour discharge.

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▸ “Notice that if the charge is removed in one hour, the capacity
falls very considerably to about 70 Amphours.
▸ On the other hand, if the current
is drawn off more slowly, in say 20 hours, the capacity rises
to about 110 Amphours.”

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 Cont..

▸ Suppose a battery has a capacity of 42 Amphours, then it is

said that C = 42 Amphours.
▸ Battery users talk about ‘a discharge current of 2C’, or ‘charging
the battery at 0.4C’.
▸ In these cases this would mean a discharge current of 84 Amps,
or a charging current of 16.8 Amps.

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 Discharge rate

▸ The discharge rate is the current at which a battery is

discharged under constant current characteristics.
▸ The rate is also known as C-rate which is expressed as Qp /h-
rate, where QP is rated battery capacity and h is discharge time
in hours.
▸ For a battery that has a capacity of QP Ah and is discharged
over ∆t h, the discharge rate is Qp/∆t.

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 C-rating

▸ The C rate of A battery cell represents the level of constant

current charge or discharge that the cell can sustain for one
hour of time.
▸ The capacity of A battery is often rated at 1C, meaning that a
charged battery rated at 1Ah should provide 1A for one hour.
▸ The same battery discharging at 0.5C should provide 500mA
for 2 hours, and at 2C it delivers 2A for a half-hour.
▸ Losses at fast discharges reduce the discharge time, and these
losses also affect charge times

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 C-Rating Calculation

▸ Let us consider A 20C battery rated at 2000 mAh. To calculate

what this battery can do.
▸ Now, Calculate the amps times the C-rating to get the total
output current:
▸ Total Output Current = 2 Ah * 20C = 40 A
▸ This means that we can discharge 40
amps continuously without damaging the battery.

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33
For a 15-kWh battery
○ 1C charge / discharge rate means pumping in or taking out
power at 15kW
○ An charge or drain the battery fully (SoC 0% and 100%) in 1
hour
▸ 2C rate implies push-in / pull-out power at twice the battery
capacity rate, that is at 30kW
○ Battery will charge/discharge in 30 minutes
▸ 4C Rate: 60 kW charge / discharge rate - fully in 15 minutes
▸ 0.1C Rate: 1.5 kW or charge / discharge in 10 hours
For a battery of 15 kWh
○ If a vehicle requires power of 30 kW, battery is used at 2C-
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 Energy stored

▸ The energy stored in a battery depends on its voltage, and the

charge stored.
▸ The SI unit is the Joule, but this is an inconveniently small unit,
and so we use the Whr instead
▸ Energy in Watthours = Voltage × Amphours
▸ Both(V and AMPH) are reduced if the current is increased and
the battery is drained quickly.

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 solve

▸ A battery is of 48v, 30Ah is designed to power an electric two

wheeler. Battery is designed to operate at 80% DOD and end of
life is considered when the capacity falls to 70 % of its internal
capacity?
○ Compute the total energy in wh. What is the maximum
amount of usable energy available for each cycle at the
beginning of life and at the end of life?

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▸ Specific Energy:
○ Is the amount of electrical energy stored for every
kilogram of battery mass. It has units of Wh/kg
▸ Energy Density:
○ Energy density is the amount of electrical energy stored
per cubic metre of battery volume.
○ It normally has units of Wh.m-3.

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▸ Specific power :
○ Specific power is the amount of power obtained per
kilogram of battery.
○ It is a highly variable and rather anomalous quantity, since
the power given out by the battery depends far more upon
the load connected to it than the battery itself.
▸ High specific power normally results in lower specific energy
for any particular type of battery.

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 “
In electric vehicle terms, they can drive
the vehicle very slowly over a long
distance.

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42
▸ For 100 km range. Compute size reduction with
efficiency :25wh/km to 15 wh/km. Calculate the size
of the battery required and estimate the cost of the
battery

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 Amphour (charge)Efficiency

▸ In an ideal world a battery would return the entire charge put

into it, in which case the amp hour efficiency is 100%.
▸ However, no battery does; its charging efficiency is less than
100%.
▸ The precise value will vary with different types of battery,
temperature and rate of charge.
▸ It will also vary with the state of charge.

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 Energy efficiency

▸ It is defined as the ratio of electrical energy supplied by a

battery to the amount of electrical energy required to return it
to the state before discharge.
▸ A strong argument for using electric vehicles is based on its
efficient use of energy.
▸ Therefore ,the reduction of overall emissions ; and high energy
efficiency is desirable.
▸ Energy efficiency is improved by motor/controller efficiency,
better tyres, better vehicle aero dynamics and lower weight.

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▸ For example, “ when going from
about 20% to 80% charged the efficiency will
usually be very close to 100%, but as the
last 20% of the charge is put in the efficiency
falls off greatly.

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 “
If the battery is charged and discharged rapidly,
for example, energy efficiency decreases
considerably.

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 Self-discharge rates

▸ Most batteries discharge when left unused, and this is known

as self-discharge.
▸ This is important as it means some batteries cannot be left for
long periods without recharging.
▸ The rate varies with battery type, and with other factors such as
temperature; higher temperatures greatly increase self-
discharge.

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▸ Battery temperature, heating and cooling needs
▸ Battery life and number of deep cycles

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 SOC(State of charge)

▸ The state of charge (SOC) represents the present capacity of

the battery.
▸ It is the amount of capacity that remains after discharge from a
top-of-charge condition.
▸ Output voltage of battery pack varies with its SOC
○ For a 48V li-ion battery, voltage varies from 43 v to 56 v
depending upon the SOC.
○ 43 V when SOC is near zero and 56 v when SOC is near
100%

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Equations of SOC

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 Defining EV battery life

▸ Consider a battery with a capacity of C to start with; Over time

the capacity decreases due to
▸ Aging or time: Calendar life (typically 1% to 2% of capacity loss
per year)
▸ Charge-discharge cycles: as batteries are charged / discharged,
battery capacity decreases
▸ When the capacity becomes 80% of C, it may be termed as END
of life battery implying the battery will no longer give range
required by EV and EV therefore needs to be replaced.

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▸ For 15 kwh battery: EOL capacity is 12 kwh
○ These batteries can no longer be used in EV’s as the range
decreases, but may be considered for other applications
(second life of the battery).

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 SOD

▸ The state of discharge (SoD) is a measure of the charge that has

been drawn from a battery during discharge.

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 DOD

The depth of discharge (DoD) is the percentage of battery rated

capacity to which a battery is discharged.

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 DOD

▸ For long life, never fully emptied or fully charged

▸ Useable energy each charge –discharge cycle is typically x
%(85%) of total capacity.
▸ Battery capacity reduces with each charge and discharge cycle.
▸ When battery capacity remaining or SOH is y% of initial
capacity.
▸ EOL = X*Y*C

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 State-of-health (SoH)

▸ The three main state-of-health indicators of a battery are:

○ Capacity, the ability to store energy
○ Internal resistance, the capability to deliver current, and
○ Self-discharge, reflecting mechanical integrity and stress-
related conditions.
▸ SoH is commonly hidden form the user in consumer products;
only state-of-charge (SoC) is provided

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▸ SoH is sometimes divided into:
○ Absolute state-of-health (ASoH), the ability to store the
specified energy when the battery is new
○ Relative state-of-health (RSoH), available storage
capability when battery is broken in

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 ?

▸ A ev battery has a capacity of 15kwh. Assuming effective

capacity used in the beginning is 85% and the EOL is 70% of
capacity, what is the range of that vehicle(80wh/km) can
support, when the battery is new. What range will it support at
the end of the life?

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 Capital and operational cost of EV battery

Battery size (kwh) 1 2 3 4

Battery capital cost 18 k 33k 45k 54k

Energy Range with battery size(kwh)

Efficiency(wh/km)
Two 15 56.7 113.3 170 226.7
wheeler
20 42.5 85 127.5 170

25 34 68 102 136

30 28.3 56.7 85 113.3

Auto 40 21.3 42.5 63.8 85

50 17 34 51 68

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 Methods to reduce the battery size

Business viability for Private vehicles Conventional approach

public transport ▸ Batteries dominate
▸ Split battery into the cost of an EV ▸ Choose the higher
smaller size and swap ▸ Smaller battery rating battery
▸ Smaller size battery creates range anxiety ▸ Slow charger normally
makes EV highly in private vehicles ▸ Fast charging
affordable. ▸ Fast charging effects whenever needed
▸ No waiting time to the life of battery
charge the battery

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 Brain Storming

▸ If I would like to go for 100 km even the battery range is 50 km?

○ Range Extender battery
○ Use EV with small (two) battery slots
○ One would have fixed low cost limited range battery
○ Second would be an empty slot to add range
○ Extension battery
○ Swappable battery doubling the range

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 Typical battery life and charging

▸ Battery life dependent on rate of charging

○ Battery with 500 to 1000 cycles costs low
○ Battery with 1500 to 2000 cycles costs medium
○ Battery with 3000 to 4000 cycles costs high
○ Battery with capability of fast charge/discharge costs much
higher.

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 HOW MANY CYCLES DO WE NEED?

▸ Depends on how much distance vehicle will drive in its life

time?
▸ What is the size of the battery?(how much range will it provide
for a vehicle?)
▸ 600 km range car battery 800 to 1000 cycles gives 500000km
total life
▸ 100 km range car battery needs at least 2000 cycles gives
200000km total life
▸ 50km range battery again require 1500 cycles minimum to get
75000 km life

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 Charging battery strategy for best life of battery

▸ Best charge : slow at home in nights

▸ Will use on board charger
○ 15A 1 phase charging (upto 3 kW) for 2 wheelers, 3 wheelers or
small four wheelers
○ 3 phase charging(6 to 20 kw) for larger vehicles with larger
battery.
○ Buses and Taxis may need regular fast charging

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 Second life of battery

▸ Once the battery reach 70-80% of their initial capacity, they can be
used in fixed storage applications like UPS and inverters or grid
storage.
▸ Recycling : recover all materials with zero effluent and build new
batteries.
▸ Extract the raw material from the battery.

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Battery modelling

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 Battery equivalent circuit

▸ To construct an equivalent circuit.

▸ The values of the circuit parameters (E and R) are not constant.
▸ The open circuit voltage of the battery E is the most important
to establish first.

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 Modelling battery capacity

▸ The capacity (10Ahr) of a battery is reduced if the current is

drawn more quickly.
▸ Drawing 1A for 10 hours does not take the same charge from a
battery as running it at 10A for 1 hour.

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 Simulation a battery at a set power

▸ When making a vehicle goes at a certain speed, then it is a certain

power that will be required from the motor.
▸ This will then require a certain electrical power from the battery.
▸ The first step is to find an equation for the current I from a battery
when it is operating at a power P Watts.

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 Battery pack using battery cells

▸ Life of battery pack is primarily dependent on life cycle of the

battery cells.
▸ Cycle life of battery not only depend on its chemistry but also
many other factors
○ Charge-Discharge rate( C-Rate)
○ Temperature of charge, discharge and storage
○ Depth of discharge (DOD)

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 Charge-Discharge rate( C-Rate)

▸ Mostly li-ion battery functions best(Have maximum number of

life cycles)
○ When its temperature of its usage is 25 degrees
○ When its C-rate is less than 0.1C
○ When battery charge-discharge is in between SOC of 10
% and 80 %
▸ Factors affecting battery life cycles
○ 1000 cycles when charged at C/2 discharged at C rate @ 25
degrees with 85% DOD

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 Rate of charging and discharging

▸ Higher C rates adversely impact the battery of life, Higher

charging rate lower will be the life of battery.
▸ When specified at C/2 rate and if charged at 3C rate, battery life
may get reduced by a factor of 5 or more.

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“

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 Temperature dependence of life

▸ Higher temperature implies smaller number of life cycles

▸ Lower temperature is equally problematic

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80
3.Chemical Battery
History

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Chemical Battery History

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 Parameters to select EV battery

• C-rate usable
Costs per kWh • Safety and safe-disposal

Specific Energy density (Wh/kg)

Vol. Energy density (Wh/litre)

Life-cycles at certain C-rate

Temperature at certain
DoD

Capacity and DoD

usable

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 Battery selected to match vehicle requirement

▸ In terms of Energy required to travel certain range, influencing

battery size
▸ In terms of instantaneous Power requirement, influencing C-
rate
▸ Weight and Size (volume)
▸ Capital costs and Life-cycles for battery replacement
▸ Time to recharge battery
▸ Safety and safe-disposal

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 Types of batteries

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LEAD ACID LI-ION Al-Air
Lead –acid, Li-Ion and al-air

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 Battery chemisry

▸ Most popular large batteries

used to be Lead-Acid till a
few years back
▸ Ni-Cad and Ni-M Hydride
came up later.

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▸ Li-Ion Battery cells emerged
○ First for cell-phones and
lap-tops
○ Then became dominant
for EVs+
○ And the increasing
energy density and
falling prices made it
dominant today .

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Li-Ion Battery Chemistries

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Comparisons of Li-Ion Chemistries

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 Six Parameters of six chemistries

Costs per kWh

Specific Energy density (Wh/kg)

Specific power

Life span

Safety

Performance

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Six parameters of six Chemistries

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 Future batteries

▸ Solid state li-ion

○ High specific energy but poor loading and safety

▸ Lithium-sulphur
○ High specific energy but poor loading and life cycle

▸ Lithium air

▸ High specific energy but poor loading and life cycle.

Moreover , needs clean air
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98
 “
Alternative and Novel Energy
Sources

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 Alternative energy sources

▸ Flow- Battery: Long Life, High Capital Cost – may be considered

for fixed applications in countries where interest rate is low
▸ Fuel-cell: requires Hydrogen delivery, Costs per km – requires
further technology work
▸ Super-capacitors: very high-rate charging / discharging,
expensive per Wh

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101
 Types of cells

Cylinder cells Pouch cells Prismatic

cells

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103
104
“

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 “
SoH, SoC estimationand self-
discharge

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 soc

▸ Percentage of total charge at which the

battery is currently at
○ 70% SoC implies that battery is 30% empty and
70% full
▸ Open circuit Battery Voltage directly proportional to its SoC, as
shown in figure in Lead Acid battery
○ 12V battery varies from 11.7V to 12.85V
○ 48V battery varies from 46.5V to 51.5V
▸ But not so in Li -Ion battery
▸ Also even the proportionate to voltage
applicable when battery is neither charging nor
discharging (at rest for some time)
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“

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Charging in range 3.0V to 4.2V

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Discharging till 2.75V

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 Implications of SoC curves

▸ Constant Current (CC) Charging at High rate (say 2C)

○ Only partially charge battery: possible only up to some low SoC
(say 57%)
○ Beyond that it will be a Constant Voltage (CV) Charging, which is
very low-current charging
○ High-rate charging only meaningful for large Battery
○ High-rate Charging also impacts life badly
○ High-rate discharge also hurts battery life
▸ Energy pumped into Cell between 3.5V and 4.2V when slow-charged
◦For fast charge, it is between 3.9V and 4.2V
◦ Slow-discharge energy is between 3.4V and 4.1V
▸ SoC not a linear function of voltage
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113
 “
How does one measure SoC
accurately?

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 Voltage method

▸ Obtain the Open Circuit Cell Voltage (OCV) Vs SoC accurately in

lab at very low charging rate (C/25 going to C/100) for different
temperatures
▸ Does OCV Vs SoC curve depend on SoH: not clear – conflicting
opinions amongst researchers
▸ SOC is a non-linear function of open-circuit voltage, only when
Battery is fully at rest (very slow charge or discharge is ok)

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▸ Coulomb counting : Very Accurate but dependent on accurate
SoH and precision of current measurement
○ Measuring the current (total Coulombs) flowing in and out
of battery: gives one a change in SoC if SoH as well as the
initial Capacity is known.

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 SoC estimation using Coulomb Count (cont)

▸ Coulomb Counting requires correct starting point (initial SoC)

○ What is SoC was in beginning? mostly a reset to 100% is
done after full charge cycle
▸ Coulomb count between two instant will indeed be a good
measure of energy added or removed from a battery but will
represent SoC only to the extent that initial SoC was good!

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▸ Change in SoC (ΔSoC) = Charge pumped in or out of battery /
(Capacity * SoH)
▸ Need to be converted to percentage
▸ Where Charge pumped in and out is Coulomb Count * electron
charge or integration of current over time: If Computed charge
is IN the ΔSoC is positive, else it is negative.

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▸ Will repeated charging and discharging reduce accuracy as
error builds-up?
◦ A repeated partial charge and discharge (without a 100% reset
cycle) builds up the accumulation errors in SoC

◦ The extent of error directly depends on the errors in current

measurement device and the degradation of battery SoH

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How do we estimate the
cycles/lifetime
remaining in a battery?

120
▸ Not very accurately, but we can estimate !!
◦ Referred to as age/health of a battery tells us “State of Health
(SOH)”
◦ Represents the amount by which battery has deteriorated
due to irreversible physical and chemical changes
▸ Periodically completely discharge and then charge the battery
(track open-circuit
voltage) and then again discharge slowly and carry out the
coulomb count

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▸ Give several hours rest after full charge
▸ Indicates maximum charge that the battery can hold currently
▸ Compare it with past data: Gives an estimate of SoH
Alternate method: Internal resistance
▸ As battery electrodes deteriorate, its capacity to deliver current
also reduces
▸ Internal resistance of a cell indicates the capability to deliver
current
▸ Difference between internal resistance of fresh and used cell,
helps in estimating SOH
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123
Self-discharge of battery

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Battery Pack
development

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What makes a Battery Pack?

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 Design considerations for Pack

▸ Thermal design must remove the heat generated from the pack
immediately
○ Cells- temperatures need control
▸ Mechanical design should include safety considerations
○ Right Pressure needs to be applied to cells, else they will
bulge

127
 Battery Management System (BMS)

◦Only balanced cells used in a pack: requires

voltage/current/temperature monitoring of each cell and
balancing cells during charging as well as discharging
◦ Pack should get cut off if the temperature increases: key to safety
◦ Communicates with charger to decide charging strategy

128
 Battery Pack Design: Electrical

▸ Battery-pack required certain Voltage and Capacity (in Ah and

Wh terms)
▸ Voltage chosen based on requirement of drive-train
components and total battery Capacity
▸ High Currents implies large ohmic losses (thick cables):
normally limited to <200 Amps
▸ Therefore depending upon energy (kWh) of storage, certain
voltage preferred

129
 cont..

▸ 48V or 72V for small batteries for 2W /3W and small 4W

▸ 100 Wh to 15 kWh: 1 kWh requires 21 Ah cells -- possible with
prismatic and cylindrical
▸ 350V for medium sized batteries for larger cars and pick-ups
▸ 20 kWh to 70 kWh batteries; 1 kWh battery requires < 3 Ah --
possible only with cylindrical
▸ 750V for motors for buses and trucks
▸ Battery size of 60 kWh to 300 kWh: too many cells if cylindrical
used

130
 Building Packs from cells

▸ Cell voltage typically 3.7V (usage voltage varying from 3.1V to 4.1V)
○ Cell Capacity is 3.4 Ah (cylindrical) to 50 Ah (prismatic / pouch)
○ Requires cells connected in Series to get higher voltage: 14 cells in Series
is 51.8V
○ Required cells in Parallel for higher Capacity: 8 cells (50 Ah) in parallel
gives 400 Ah
▸ Generally cells has to be connected in series and parallel to make a pack
○ mPnS implies m cells in parallel to form modules and then connecting n
modules in series
○ nSmP implies n cells in series to form strings and then connecting m
strings in parallel
▸ 4P14S pack with 3.7V cylindrical cells of 3.4Ah gives a capacity
◦ Capacity in Ah is 4*3.4 Ah or 13.6Ah; voltage is 14*3.7V or 51.8Ah
◦ Total Capacity in kWh = 13.6*51.8 Wh = 704.5 Wh; same is capacity for 14S4P
of same
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Building mSnP battery pack
▸ Cells can be connected in
series to form a STRING
◦ 14 cells connected in series
to form 48V battery
◦ 20 cells in series for 72V
battery
◦ 100 cells in series for 365V
battery
◦ 200 cells in series for 730V
battery

132
 Cont..

▸ Strings can be connected in parallel to increase capacity

▸ Two 14S2P strings with 15 Ah cells would be of 48V * 2 * 15 Ah
capacity or 1.5 kWh capacity
▸ Any capacity can be built But a concern: if strings do not have
exactly same voltage (will mostly not be so),current will flow
from one string to another for balancing
▸ ◦ This will happen continuously while charging or discharging
and even when IDLE
▸ ◦ not good for battery

133
 Building nPmS battery pack

▸ Cells can be connected in

parallel to form MODULES
◦ Four 15 Ah cells give a
module of 60 Ah
◦ Eight 15 Ah cell give a
module of 120 Ah
◦ Sixteen 15 Ah cell give a
module of 240 Ah

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135
 Cells to Module and Modules to Pack

▸ Multiple Cells packed in parallel to form a Module

▸ Cells selected so that they are of same voltage(balanced)
▸ Cells connected with a metal bar that conducts electricity
▸ Multiple Modules in series to form a battery Pack
▸ Battery Management System (BMS) a must to get optimal
performance
○ Especially for Li Ion batteries

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 Cont..

▸ Cell equalisation during Charging

○ Monitor voltages and temperature of each
module and total pack current
▸ If a module is over-charged (impacts life),
equalise by
○ Passive balancing: bleed module with higher
voltage through a resistor, so that it charges
slower, or just drain it.
○ Active balancing: stop charging module with
higher voltage; instead, use its output to
charge the rest of pack (using a DC-DC
converter)
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▸ BMS could limit temperature of each
module if active cooling is done

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 Electrical Design

▸ As high currents are involved, a conductor is not zero voltage

drop
▸ Smallest resistance-difference between two electrical paths
may result into differential voltage-drops: currents will flow
more on one rather than the other creating imbalances
▸ For example if current enters battery as shown by the arrow
▸ Electrical Path to cell marked “a” is shorter than that for one
marked “d”
▸ Cell imbalance will be created between cells a and d

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 Cont..

▸ It happens more between modules, as current from one cell in

a module to other is more as compared to that from another
cell
▸ A pack with continuous imbalance will quickly deteriorate in
Capacity

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 Failures in battery pack i

▸ If a cell in nPmS pack

▸ One of n parallel cells may become open circuit – (n-1) cells in
module continue to function
▸ Module capacity goes down by (1/n) Ah -- Battery will function
with reduced capacity (n-1)PmS
▸ One of n parallel cells become short circuit – the full module
has zero voltage
▸ Battery voltage will be (m-a)S: the pack is now nP(m-1)S
◦ Can continue to function only if the drive train functions at at
lower voltage: poor performance.

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 Cont..

▸ Repair will involve replacement of whole module – difficult

(depends upon pack):Replacement of a cell is difficult.
▸ If a serial connection between module fails: battery fails
▸ Generally easier to repair – may require bus-bar replacement

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 Failures in Battery Pack II

▸ Failure in BMS: replace BMS

▸ MOSFET in BMS heated: design issue
▸ Temperature sensor failure: detect and replace
◦ Risky: failure to detect rapid heating and cutting-off (BMS
function) may take cells to meltdown
▸ Cell capacity deterioration: Battery Pack Capacity deterioration
▸ Unbalanced cells in modules: Battery Pack Capacity
deterioration

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▸ Incorrect SoH or SoC estimation
▸ BMS may cut-off battery (and thereby vehicle cut-off) even
when charge is not low
▸ Wrong display of charge remaining

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 Thanks!

any
questions
?

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