Unit - Ii Heat Treatment

UNIT - II
HEAT TREATMENT
Definition of heat treatment
Heat treatment is an operation or combination of

operations involving heating at a specific rate,
soaking at a temperature for a period of time and
cooling at some specified rate. The aim is to obtain a
desired microstructure to achieve certain
predetermined properties (physical, mechanical,
magnetic or electrical).
2
Objectives of heat treatment (heat treatment processes)
The major objectives are

• to increase strength, harness and wear resistance (bulk hardening,
surface hardening)
• to increase ductility and softness (tempering, recrystallization
annealing)
• to increase toughness (tempering, recrystallization annealing)
• to obtain fine grain size (recrystallization annealing, full
annealing, normalising)
• to remove internal stresses induced by differential deformation by
cold working, non-uniform cooling from high temperature during
casting and welding (stress relief annealing)
3
• to improve machineability (full annealing and
normalising)
• to improve cutting properties of tool steels
(hardening and tempering)
• to improve surface properties (surface
hardening)
• to improve electrical properties
(recrystallization, tempering, age hardening)
• to improve magnetic properties (hardening,
phase transformation)
4
An overview of important heat treatments
 A broad classification of heat treatments possible are given below. Many more specialized
treatments or combinations of these are possible.
HEAT TREATMENT
BULK SURFACE
ANNEALING NORMALIZING HARDENING

THERMAL THERMO-
& CHEMICAL
TEMPERING
Full Annealing Carburizing
MARTEMPERING Flame
Recrystallization Annealing Induction Nitriding
Stress Relief Annealing AUSTEMPERING LASER Carbo-nitriding
Spheroidization Annealing Electron Beam

Critical temperatures
•Upper critical temperature (point) A3 is the
temperature, below which ferrite starts to form
as a result of ejection from austenite in the
hypoeutectoid alloys.
•Upper critical temperature (point) ACM is the
temperature, below which cementite starts to
form as a result of ejection from austenite in the
hypereutectoid alloys.
•Lower critical temperature (point) A1 is the
temperature of the austenite-to-pearlite
eutectoid transformation. Below this
temperature austenite does not exist.
•Magnetic transformation temperature A2 is
the temperature below which α-ferrite is
ferromagnetic.
Heat Treatment Unit II
Annealing: Annealing
 Annealing involves heating the material to a predetermined temperature
and hold the material at the temperature and cool the material to the room
temperature slowly. The process involves:
1) Heating of the material at the

elevated or predetermined
temperature
2) Holding the material (Soaking) at
the temperature for longer time.
3) Very slowly cooling the material
to the room temperature.
8
Annealing: Annealing
 The various purpose of these heat treatments is to:
1) Relieve Internal stresses developed during solidification,

machining, forging, rolling or welding,
2) Improve or restore ductility and toughness,
3) Enhance Machinability,
4) Eliminate chemical non-uniformity,
5) Refrain grain size, &
6) Reduce the gaseous contents in steel.
9
 Ranges of temperature where Annealing, Normalizing and Spheroidization treatment are
carried out for hypo- and hyper-eutectoid steels.
 Details are in the coming slides.
Ful
l An
nea
910 C

ling
t i on Acm
No li za
r ma m a
liza r
A3 tion No
723C Full Annealing

A1
Spheroidization Stress Relief Annealing


T Recrystallization Annealing
Wt% C
0.8 %
Full Annealing
 The purpose of this heat treatment is to obtain a material with high ductility. A
microstructure with coarse pearlite (i.e. pearlite having high interlamellar spacing) is
endowed with such properties.
 The range of temperatures used is given in the figure below.
 The steel is heated above A3 (for hypo-eutectoid steels) & A1 (for hyper-eutectoid steels) → (hold) → then the
steel is furnace cooled to obtain Coarse Pearlite.
 Coarse Pearlite has low (↓) Hardness but high (↑) Ductility.
 For hyper-eutectoid steels the heating is not done above Acm to avoid a continuous network of
proeutectoid cementite along prior Austenite grain boundaries (presence of cementite along grain boundaries
provides easy path for crack propagation).
910C Acm
A3
723C Full Annealing

A1

T
Wt% C
0.8 %
Recrystallization Annealing
 During any cold working operation (say cold rolling), the material becomes harder (due to
work hardening), but loses its ductility. This implies that to continue deformation the
material needs to be recrystallized (wherein strain free grains replace the ‘cold worked
grains’).
 Hence, recrystallization annealing is used as an intermediate step in (cold) deformation
Heat below A1 → Sufficient time → Recrystallization
processing.
 To achieve this the sample is heated below A1 and held there for sufficient time for
recrystallization to be completed.
910C Acm
A3
723C
Recrystallization Annealing A1

T
Wt% C
0.8 %
Annealing: Process Annealing

 In this treatment, steel (or any material) is heated to a temperature
below the lower critical temperature, and is held at this temperature for
sufficient time and then cooled.
 Cooling rate is of little

importance as the process is
being done at sub critical
temperatures.
 The purpose of this

treatment is to reduce
hardness and to increase
ductility of cold-worked steel
so that further working may
be carried easily.
13
Annealing: Process Annealing

 This process is extensively used in the treatment of sheets and wires.
 Parts which are fabricated

by cold forming such as
stamping, extrusion, upsetting
and drawing are frequently
given this treatment as an
intermediate step.
 Scaling or oxidation can be

prevented or minimized by
this process specially if
annealed at lower
temperatures or in non-
oxidizing areas.
14
Annealing: Stress Relieving

 As the name suggests, this process is employed to relieve internal
stresses. No microstructural changes occur during the process.
 Internal stresses are those stresses which can exist within a body in the
absence of external forces. These are also known as residual stresses are
locked-in stresses.
 These stresses are developed in operations like:
Solidification of castings, welding, machining, grinding, shot peening,

surface hammering, cold working, case hardening, electroplated coatings,
precipitation and phase transformation.
15

 These internal stresses under certain conditions can have adverse effects:
example: Steels with residual stresses under corrosive environment fail with stress
corrosion cracking.
These stresses also enhance the tendency

of steels towards warpage and dimensional
instability.
 Fatigue strength is reduced considerably

when residual tensile stresses are present
in steel.
 The problems associated with internal

stresses are more difficult in brittle
materials than in ductile materials.
Stress – Corrosion Cracking 16

 The process of stress relieving consists of heating materials uniformly to a
temperature below the lower critical temperature, holding at this temperature for
sufficient time, followed by uniform cooling.
 Uniform cooling is of utmost
importance as non-uniform cooling
will itself result in the development of
internal stresses. Thus the very
purpose of stress relieving will be lost.
 Plain carbon steels and low alloy
steels generally temperature is limited
to 600 oC. Higher temperature is used
for high alloy steels.
 The extent of the stresses relieved
depend upon the temperature employed
and holding time.
Stress – Corrosion Cracking 17
Spheroidization Annealing
 This is a very specific heat treatment given to high carbon steel requiring extensive
machining prior to final hardening & tempering. The main purpose of the treatment is to
increase the ductility of the sample.
 Like stress relief annealing the treatment is done just below A 1.
 Long time heating leads cementite plates to form cementite spheroids. The driving force for
this (microstructural) transformation is the reduction in interfacial energy.
910C Acm
A3
723C
Spheroidization A1

T
Wt% C
0.8 %
Normalizing
 Normalizing is similar to full annealing, except steel is generally cooled
in still air.
 The normalizing consists of
heating steel to about 40-55 oC
above critical temperature
(Ac3 or Accm), and holding for
proper item and then cooling
in still air or slightly agitated
air to room temperature.
 In some special cases,

cooling rates can be controlled
by either changing air
temperature or air volume.
19
Normalizing
 After normalizing, the resultant micro-structure should be pearlitic.
 Since the temperature involved

in this process is more than that
for annealing , the homogeneity
of austenite increases and it
results in better dispersion of
ferrite and Cementite in the final
structure.
 Results in better dispersion of
ferrite and Cementite in the final
structure.
 The grain size is finer in normalized structure than in annealed structure.
20
Normalizing
 Normalized steels are generally stronger and harder than fully annealed
steels.
 Steels are soft in annealed

condition and tend to stick during
machining. By normalizing, an
optimum combination of strength
and softness is achieved, which
results in satisfactory level of
Machinability in steels.
 Normalizing is the effective

way to eliminate the carbide
network.
21
Normalizing
 Normalized treatment is frequently applied to steel in order to achieve
any one or more of the objectives, namely:
 To refine the grain structure,

 To obtain uniform structure,
 To decrease residual stresses,
 To improve Machinability.
22
Differene between Annealing & Normalizing
Annealing Normalising
Cooling in Furnace Air cooling
Slow cooling rate Faster cooling rate
The distribution of grain size is Less uniform
more uniform
Less internal stress More
Less hardness More
Less toughness More
Less strength More
After cooling the Fine Pearlite
microstructure is Coarse
Pearlite
More expensive Less expensive
23
Time Temperature Transformation (TTT) Diagram:

 TTT diagram is a plot of temperature versus the logarithm of time for a
steel alloy of definite composition.
 It is used to determine when
transformations begin and
end for an isothermal heat
treatment of a previously
austenitized alloy.
 TTT diagram indicates when

a specific transformation
starts and ends and it also
shows what percentage of
transformation of austenite at
a particular temperature is
24
achieved.

 Depending on the type of heat treatment, time and temperature, final
microstructure of the steel, or any Iron carbon will be changed and so does
the properties.
Martensite
T Martensite
Strength
Ductility
Bainite
Fine Pearlite
Coarse Pearlite
Spheroidite
General Trends
25
Iron-carbon alloy
with Eutectoid
(0.8 % C)
composition.
 A: Austenite
 P: Pearlite
 B: Bainite
 M: Martensite
Time Temperature Transformation (TTT) Diagram: Unit II
Example 1:
 Iron-carbon alloy with
eutectoid composition.
 Specify the nature of the final

microstructure (% bainite,
martensite, pearlite etc) for the Bainite,
alloy that is subjected to the
100%
following time–temperature
treatments:
 Alloy begins at 760˚C and has

been held long enough to
achieve a complete and
homogeneous austenitic
structure.
 Treatment (a)
 Rapidly cool to 350 ˚C
 Hold for 104 seconds
 Quench to room temperature
Example 2:
 Iron-carbon alloy with
eutectoid composition.

martensite, pearlite etc) for the
treatments:
Austenite,
 Alloy begins at 760˚C and has 100%
been held long enough to
achieve a complete and
homogeneous austenitic
structure.
 Treatment (b) Martensite,

 Rapidly cool to 250 ˚C 100%
 Example 3:
Austenite,
 Iron-carbon alloy with eutectoid
100%
composition. Almost 50% Pearlite,
50% Austenite
martensite, pearlite etc) for the
treatments: Bainite, 50%
 Alloy begins at 760˚C and has
been held long enough to achieve
a complete & homogeneous
austenitic structure.
 Treatment (c)
 Rapidly cool to 650˚C Final:
 Hold for 20 seconds 50% Bainite,
50% Pearlite
 Rapidly cool to 400˚C
Hardening:
 Hardening and Hardness are two very different things. One is a process
of heat treatment and other is a extrinsic property of a material.
 Hardening is a heat treatment

process in which steel is rapidly cooled
from austenitising temperature. As a
result of hardening, the hardness and
wear resistance of steel are improved.
 Hardening treatment generally

consists of heating to hardening
temperature, holding at that
temperature, followed by rapid cooling
such as quenching in oil or water or salt
baths.
30
Hardening:
 The high hardness developed by this process is due to the phase
transformation accompanying rapid cooling. Rapid cooling results in the
transformation of austenite at considerably low temperature into non-
equilibrium products.
 The hardening temperature depends on chemical composition. For plain
carbon steels, it depends on the carbon content alone. Hypoeutectoid steels
are heated to about 30 – 50 oC above the upper critical temperature, whereas
eutectoid and hyper eutectoid steels are heated to about 30 – 50 oC above
lower critical temperature.
 Ferrite and pearlite transform to austenite at hardening temperature for

hypoectectoid steel. This austenite transforms to martensite on rapid
quenching from hardening temperature. The presence of martensite
accounts for high hardness of quenched steel.
31
Hardening:
 Hardening is applied to cutting tools and machine parts where high hardness and
wear resistance are important.
 The Process Variables:
Hardening Temperature: The steel should be heat treated to optimum austenitising

temperature. A lower temperature results lower hardness due to incomplete
transformation of austenite. If this temperature is too high will also results lower
hardness due to a coarse grained structure.
Soaking Time: Soaking time at hardening temperature should be long enough to

transform homogenous austenite structure. Soaking time increases with increase in
section thickness and the amount of alloying element.
Delay in quenching: After soaking, the steel is immediately quenched. Delay in

quenching may reduce hardness due to partial transformation of austenite.
Type of quenching medium also has a profound effect, which will be discussed briefly.32
Hardening:
 The main purpose of hardening tool steel is to develop high hardness.
This enables tool steel to cut other metals. High hardness developed by
this process also improves wear resistance. Gears, shafts and bearings.
Tensile strength and yield strength are improved considerably hardening
structural steels.
 Because of rapid cooling, high

internal stresses are developed in
the hardened steel. Hence these
steels are generally brittle.
Hardening in general is followed
by another treatment known as
tempering which reduces internal
stresses and makes the hardened
steel relatively stable,
33
Tempering:
 Hardened steels are so brittle that even a small impact will cause
fracture. Toughness of such a steel can be improved by tempering.
However there is small reduction in strength and hardness.
 Tempering is a sub-critical heat

treatment process used to improve
the toughness of hardened steel.
 Tempering consists of reheating

of hardened steel to a temperature
below Lower critical temperature
and is held for a period of time, and
then slowly cooled in air to room
temperature.
34
Tempering:
 At tempering temperature, carbon atoms diffuses out and form fine
cementite and softer ferrite structure left behind. Thus the structure of
tempered steel consists of ferrite and fine cementite.
Thus tempering allows to precipitate

carbon as very fine carbide and allow the
microstructure to return to BCC
 The temperatures are related to the

function of the parts. Cutting tools are
tempered between 230 – 300 oC. If greater
ductility and toughness are desired as in case
of shafts and high strength bolts, the steel is
tempered in the range of 300 – 600 oC.
35
Tempering:
 Tempering temperatures are usually identified by the colour. Tempering
temperatures for tools and shafts along with temper colors.
 Depending on temperatures, tempering processes can be classified as:
1) Low- temperature tempering

(150 – 250 oC),
2) Medium – temperature
tempering (350 – 450 oC),
3) High – temperature tempering

(500 – 650 oC).
36
Tempering:
 Tempering temperatures are usually identified by the colour. Tempering
temperatures for tools and shafts along with temper colors.
37
Hardenability:
 The responsibility of a steel to a given hardening treatment is indicated by
the property known as Hardenability.
 It is an index of the depth to which

the martensite can be formed in a
given steel as a result of a given
hardening treatment.
 The term Hardenability is used to

measure the depth of hardness
achieved i.e. martensite introduced
into the steel section by quenching
the steel from austenite state.
 Greater the depth of hardness below the surface, higher will be the
Hardenability of steel. 38
Hardenability:
 Hardenability of steel depends on composition of steel, method of
quenching and section of steel.
 The addition of alloying elements
in steel decreases the critical cooling
rate. Thus the Hardenability of alloy
steels is more than that of the carbon
steels.
 While in the oil quenching, the

cooling rates are lower than water
quenching and thus the hardness
values are lower in case of oil
quenched steels.
 The larger section shows lower Hardenability because of their increase
mass results in a lower overall rate of cooling. 39
Hardenability: Jominy End Quench Test

 The most simple and convenient method of determining the
Hardenability is the Jominy End
Quench Test.
 The Jominy test involves heating a standard test piece of diameter 25 mm

and length 100 mm to the austenite state, fixing it to a frame in a vertical
40
position and then quenching the lower end by means of a jet of water.
Hardenability: Jominy End Quench Test

 The mode of quenching results in different rate of cooling along the
length of the test piece.
 After a quenching, a flat of 0.38

mm deep is ground along one side of
the test piece, and hardness
measurements are made along the
length of the test piece.
 A bar of steel having good

Hardenability shows higher
hardness readings for greater
distance from the quenched end.
41
Quenching:
 Quenching is a process of rapid cooling of materials from high
temperature to room temperature or even lower. In steels quenching
results in transformation of austenite to martensite (a non-equilibrium
constituent).
 During cooling, heat must be extracted at

a very fast rate from the steel piece. This is
possible only when a steel piece is allowed
to come in contact with some medium which
can absorb heat from the steel piece with in a
short period.
 Under ideal conditions, all the heat

absorbed by the medium should be rejected
to the surroundings immediately.
42
Quenching:
 The removal of heat during quenching is complex in the sense that heat
is removed in three stages.
1) Vapor Blanket,
2) Nucleate Boiling,
3) Convection.
43
Quenching:
Vapor Blanket (stage 1)
As soon as the work-piece comes into contact with a liquid coolant
(quenchant), the surrounding quenchant layer is instantaneously heated up
to the boiling point of the quenchant and gets vaporized due to the high
temperature of the work- piece.
 This acts as an insulator, preventing
the quenching oil from contacting the
metal surface. As a consequence, the rate
of cooling during this stage is slow.
 At this stage the work piece is cooled

only by conduction and radiation
through the vapor film.
 Only the surface is cooled

considerably prior to the formation of
vapor envelop. 44
Quenching:
Nucleate Boiling (stage 2)
This second stage is also called as transport cooling stage or liquid
boiling stage. The temperature of the work-piece comes down, through
very slowly and the vapor blanket is no longer stable and collapses.
 Metal surface comes into contact with the liquid/
quenchant. Violent boiling quickly removes heat
from the quenched component while forming
bubbles and being pushed away, resulting in the
cooler fluid coming into contact with the work
piece.
This happens till the temperature of the work piece

comes down to the boiling point of the liquid.
 Maximum cooling rate is achieved during this

stage. 45
Quenching:
Convection (stage 3)
The third stage is called as the liquid cooling stage or the convection stage.
 It starts when the temperature of the

surface becomes equal to the boiling
point of the quenchant.
 Cooling at this stage takes place via

conduction and convection processes.
 The rate of cooling is the slowest at

this stage.
46
Quenching: Effect of Quenching Medium
 Quenching medium has the profound effect on the final phase of the
material. Quenching medium is directly related to the rate of the cooling
of the material.
 Some of the widely employed quenching media are water, aqueous

solutions, oils (mineral, vegetable and even animal oils), molten salts and
air.
47
Quenching: Effect of Quenching Medium (Water)
 Water has maximum cooling rate
amongst all common quenchants
except few aqueous solutions.
 It is very cheap and easily disposed

off compared to other quenchants.
 Hence water is used for carbon

steels, alloy steels and non-ferrous
alloys.
The layer if scale formed on the

surface during heating is also broken
by water quenching, thus eliminating
an additional process of surface
cooling. 48
Quenching: Effect of Quenching Medium (OIL)
 Most of the Oils used as quenchants
are mineral oils. These are in general
paraffin based and do not possess any
fatty oils.
 Quenching in oil provides slower

cooling rates as compared to those
achieved by water quenching.
 The slower cooling rate reduces the

possibility of hardening defects.
 The temperature difference between

core and the case of work piece is less
for oil quenching than for water
quenching. 49
Quenching: Effect of Quenching Medium (AIR)
 Many alloy steels are capable of
getting hardened by cooling either in
still air or in a blast of air.
 Such steels are popularly known as

air hardening steels.
 These steels are almost free from

distortion problem. However, the
problem of oxidation during cooling
(quenching) may be encountered in
practice. Many grades of tool steels are
subjected to air hardening.
 Cooling rates can be improved by

mixing air and water. 50
Quenching: Effect of Quenching Medium :
Just the drastic water quench generates a fully martensite structure.
 Although quenched in oil the austensite converts into suitably fine pearlite.
 Accurate pearlite also results if the austenised eutectoid steel is air-cooled.
 Though, if allowed to cool in furnace coarse pearlite is appeared.
51
Quenching: Effect of Quenching Medium
Coarse Pearlite
- Smaller T:
colonies are
larger
Fine Pearlite
- Larger T:
colonies are
smaller
Figure: Microstructure resulting

from Different Cooling Rates
Applied to Austenitized Samples of
52
Eutectoid Steel
MARTEMPERING & AUSTEMPERING
 These processes have been developed to avoid residual stresses generated during quenching.
 In both these processes Austenized steel is quenched above Ms (say to a temperature T1) for
homogenization of temperature across the sample.
 In Martempering the steel is then quenched and the entire sample transforms simultaneously
to martensite. This is followed by tempering.
 In Austempering instead of quenching the sample, it is held at T1 for it to transform to
bainite.
800
Eutectoid temperature
723 Austenite
Pearlite
600
 + Fe3C
500 Pearlite + Bainite
T →
400 Bainite
300 T1
Ms
200 Austempering
Mf
100
Martempering Martensite
0.1 1 10 102 103 104 105

t (s) →
Surface Hardening:
 In many situations hard and wear resistance surface is required with the
tough core. Because of tough core the components can withstand impact
load. The typical applications requiring these conditions include gear
teeth, cams shafts, bearings, crank pins, clutch plate, tools and dies.
 The combination of these properties can be achieved by the following

methods:
 1. Hardening and tempering the surface layers (surface hardening)

(i) Flame Hardening (ii) Induction Hardening
 2. Changing the composition at surface layers (chemical heat

treatment or case hardening)
(i) Carburising (ii) Nitriding (iii) Carburising and Cyaniding
54
Surface Hardening: Flame Hardening
 The flame hardening involves heating the surface of a steel to a
temperature above upper critical point (850 oC) with a oxyacetylene flame
and then immediately quenched the surface with cold water.
 Heating transforms the structure of surface layers to austenite, and the

quenching changes it to martensite.
55
Surface Hardening: Flame Hardening
 The surface layers are hardened to about 50 – 60 HRC. It is less expensive
and can be easily adopted for large and complex shapes.
Flame hardened parts must be tempered after hardening. The tempering

temperature depends on the alloy composition and desired hardness.
 The flame hardening methods are suitable for the steels with carbon
56
contents ranging from 0.40 to 0.95% and low alloy steels.
Definition - What does Flame Hardening mean?
• Flame hardening is a surface-hardening
method that involves heating a metal with a
high-temperature flame, followed by
quenching.
• It is used on medium carbon, mild or alloy
steels or cast iron to produce a hard, wear-
resistant surface.
Flame Hardening:
The result of the hardening process is
controlled by four factors:
•Design of the flame head
•Duration of heating
•Target temperature to be reached
•Composition of the metal being treated
There are four types of flame hardening:
•Stationary flame hardening - requires that the
specified area be heated
•Progressive flame hardening - involves the use
of a flame head with integrated quench
capability
•Spin flame hardening - requires the specified
area being treated to be spun in front of the
flame head(s)
•Combination flame hardening - couples the
progressive and spinning methods
The benefits of flame-hardening include:
•Increased wear resistance
•Less distortion
•Reduced processing time
•Ability to use low to medium carbon
steels
•Reduces cost by hardening only
selective areas
•Achieves high hardness for increased
life
•Less machining and grinding than other
methods
Typical flame-hardening applications include:
•Blades
•Gears
•Rolls
•Cams
•Automotive components
Definition - What does Induction
Hardening mean?
Induction hardening is a heat treatment
process carried out to enhance the mechanical
properties in a localized area of a ferrous
component. The resultant hardened area
improves the wear and fatigue resistance along
with strength.
Induction hardening is used to selectively
harden areas of a part or assembly without
affecting the properties of the part as a whole.
It is favoured for components that are
subjected to heavy loading, torsional loading
and impact forces.
Surface Hardening: Induction Hardening
 Induction hardening involves placing the steel components within a coil
through which high frequency current is passed. The current in the coil
induce eddy current in the surface layers, and heat the surface layers upto
austenite state.
 Then the surface is immediately quenched with the cold water to

transfer the austenite to martensite. The principle of induction hardening
is:
65
Surface Hardening: Induction Hardening
 Advantages of induction hardening over flame hardening is its speed
and ability to harden small parts; but it is expensive. Like flame
hardening, it is suitable for medium carbon and low alloy steels.
Typical applications for induction hardening are crank shafts, cam

shafts, connecting rods, gears and cylinders.
66
Properties of induction hardening include:
• Very quick and efficient
• Allows for localized hardening
• Core of the material remains the same
• Typically uses carbon and alloy steels with a carbon
content between 0.30% and 1.00%
• High control over quality
• Less distortion than other heating methods like
carburizing and flame hardening
• Material costs are reduced as process is compatible with
lower hardenability, lower-cost alloys
• Increases durability and resistance to wear
Applications of induction hardening include:
• Surface hardening of steel or steel alloys
• Wheel hubs
• Edge hardening of complex parts
• Gears
• Springs
• Sprockets
• Axle shafts
• Pins
• Steering components
• Transmission components
• Power tools
• Drive shafts
Surface Hardening: Carburising
 Carburising is carried out on a steels containing carbon less than 0.2%.
It involves increasing the carbon contents on the surface layers upto 0.7 to
0.8%.
 In this process, the steel is heated in contact with carbonaceous material
from which it absorbs carbon. This method is mostly used for securing
hard and wear resistance surface with tough core carburising is used for
gears, cams, bearings and clutch plates.
2 CO  C + CO2
69
Surface Hardening: Carburising
 The Following methods are used to diffuse carbon into
surface layers:
1) Pack (solid) Carburising,
2) Gas Carburising,
3) Liquid Carburising.
Liquid Carburising
70
Gas Carburising
CARBURIZING
• It is a heat treatment process.
• Increasing Carbon on the surface of iron or
steel followed by heat treatment.
• Absorbs Carbon liberated when the metal is
heated in the presence of Carbon bearing
materials.
• Carbon bearing materials can be Charcoal,
Carbon Monoxide or Carbon gases.
WORKPIECE MATERIAL
• Low Carbon alloy

steels.
• Carbon contents
should be ranging
from 0.2 to 0.3%.
• Work piece surface
should be free from
contaminants.
HARDENING AGENTS
•Carbon Monoxide Gas

•Sodium Cyanide
•Barium Carbonate
•Hardwood Charcoal
EFFECTING FACTORS
• Longer Carburizing time and higher
temperatures lead to greater
diffusion of carbon into the
metal/alloy.
• Rapid Cooling/Quenching results
transformation of austenite to
martensite.
• While core remains soft and tough as
a ferritic or pearlitic microstructure.
WHY CARBURIZING IS USED?
It is used to increase
•Ductility
•Toughness
•Hardness
•Strength
It is also used to relieve internal
stresses.
TYPES OF
CARBURIZING
TYPES OF CARBURIZING
• Gas Carburizing
• Vacuum Carburizing
• Pack Carburizing
• Liquid Carburizing
GAS CARBURIZING
Process Description:
•Surface chemistry process.
•Main carburizing agent can be either
Methane, Propane, Natural Gas or any other
Carbon carrying gas.
•Work pieces are heated with carbon carrying
gas.
•Then held for period of time at specific
temperature between 800°C - 950°C.
•After that quench the sample.
GAS CARBURIZING
Temperature Ranges:
VACUUM CARBURIZING
• It is done under very low pressure.
• Sample is heated in vacuum above
transformation temperature.
• Then exposed to carbon carrying gas
or mixture under partial pressure.
• Temperature Range: 800°C to
1100°C
• Pressure Range: 1 to 20 torrs
VACUUM CARBURIZING
PACK CARBURIZING
• Sample is packed in a steel container
& sample is completely surrounded
by granules of charcoal.
• Then heated in a furnace for 12 to 72
hours at 900°C.
• Due to high temperature, carbon
diffuses into the surface of sample.
PACK CARBURIZING
LIQUID CARBURIZING
• Sample is placed in molten cyanide’s
bath so that carbon will diffuse into the
sample.
• Diffusion of carbon into sample is
greater than nitrogen.
• Low temperature salt bath contains 20%
cyanide & operate between 1550°F to
1650°F.
• High temperature salt bath contains
10% cyanide & operate between 1650°F
to 1750°F.
LIQUID CARBURIZING
LIQUID CARBURIZING
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
GAS CARBURIZING
Advantages:
•Surface Carbon contents & case depth can be
controlled accurately.
•It is much cleaner and more efficient method.
Dis Advantages:
•Furnace & gas generator are expensive.
•Handling of fire hazards & toxic gases is
difficult.
VACUUM CARBURIZING
Advantages:
•Absence of inter-granular oxidation.
•The process is clean, safe & simple to operate
and easy to operate.
Dis Advantages:
•Higher initial equipment cost.
•Formation of soot & tar due to pressure and
Hydrogen gas introduced.
PACK CARBURIZING
Advantages:
•It is simple method and less capital investment.
•No atmosphere control furnace is required.
Dis Advantages:
•Carburizing time is very long.
•Difficult to control surface carbon & case
depth.
LIQUID CARBURIZING
Advantages:
•Freedom from oxidation & soot problems.
•A rapid rate of penetration.
Dis Advantages:
•Proper composition is necessary to obtain
uniform case depth.
•Parts must be washed after doing the process.
ANALYSIS OF CARBURIZING (STEEL
COMPONENT)
TEMPERATURE-TIME RELATION
OF CARBURIZING
• Direct Hardening
OF CARBURIZING
• Single Hardening
OF CARBURIZING
• Dual Hardening
DIMENSIONAL
CHANGES
&
COMPARISON
DIMENSIONAL CHANGES
Mechanical Changes:
•Increase surface hardness
•Increase wear resistance
•Increase Fatigue strength
•Increase Tensile Strength
DIMENSIONAL CHANGES
Physical Changes:
•Grain growth may occur.
•Changes in Volume may occur.
Chemical Changes:
•Increased surface carbon content.
CASE DEPTH vs HARDNESS
CARBURIZING vs OTHER HEAT
TREATMENT PROCESSES
• In Carburizing, Carbon diffuses onto
the steel surface and we get carbon
layer on surface.
While
• In Nitriding, Nitrogen diffuses into the
surface of steel alloys.
• In Carbonitriding, Carbon and
Nitrogen diffuse into the surface of
steel alloys.
CARBURIZING vs OTHER HEAT
TREATMENT PROCESSES
• In Boronizing, Boron diffuses into the
surface of steel alloys.
• In Induction/Flame hardening
process, There is no deposition of
further atoms into the surface of
steel.
• In Induction Hardening, part is placed
inside a water cooled copper coil &
then heated by applying current.
APPLICATIONS
• Gear teeth profiles
• Crane wheels
• Crane cable drum
• Support bracket for agricultural
tractor
• Machines worm steels
• Hydraulic clutch
APPLICATIONS
• Fly wheels
• Ball bearings
• Gear wheels & pinion blanks
• Railway wheels
• Crankshaft
• Shackles of lock
• Bevel Gears
CONCLUSION
• The mechanical properties of the steels
strongly influence by carburizing.
• Carbon plays important role in
increasing the toughness, hardness and
other mechanical properties of steels.
• Gas Carburizing is used for large parts,
liquid carburizing is used for medium &
pack carburizing is used for small parts
usually.
Surface Hardening: Nitriding
 Nitriding involves diffusion of nitrogen into the product to form nitrides.
The resulting nitride case can be harder than the carburized steel. This
process is used for alloy steels containing alloying elements (Aluminum,
Chromium and Molybdenum) which form stable nitrides.
 Nitriding consists if heating a component in a retort to a temperature of

about 500 to 600 oC. Through the retort the ammonia gas is allowed to
circulate. At this temperature the ammonia dissociates by the following
reaction.
2 NH3  2N + 3H2
 The atomic nitrogen diffuses into steel surface, and combines with the
alloying elements (Cr, Mo, W, V etc) to form hard nitrides. The depth to
which nitrides are formed in the steel depends on the temperature and the
time allowed for the reaction. After the nitriding the job is allowed to cool
slowly. Since there is no quenching involved, chances of cracking and
distortion of the component are less. 109
Surface Hardening: Nitriding
 The depth of nitrided case ranges from 0.2 to 0.4 mm and no machining is
done after nitriding.
 Nitriding increase wear and corrosion resistance and fatigue strength of

the steel. Since nitriding is done at low temperature, it requires more time
than carburising, and also the capital cost if the plant is higher than
carburising.
110
Surface Hardening: Cyaniding
 Similar to carbonitriding, cyaniding also involves the diffusion of
carbon and nitrogen into the surface of steel. It is also called liquid
carbonitriding. The components are heated to the temperature of about 800
– 900 oC in a molten cyanide bath consisting of sodium cyanide, sodium
carbonate and sodium chloride.
 After allowing the components in the bath for about 15 – 20 minutes, they
are quenched in oil or water. Cyaniding is normally used for low-carbon
steels, and case depths are usually less than 0.25 mm.
 It produces hard and wear resistance surface on the steels. Because of

shorter time cycles, the process is widely used for the machine components
subjected to moderate wear and service loads.
 The process is particularly suitable for screws, small gears, nuts and bolts.
111
Martempering
• Martempering is a heat treatment for steel
involving austenitisation followed by step
quenching, at a rate fast enough to avoid the
formation of ferrite, pearlite or bainite to a
temperature slightly above the Ms point.

Unit - Ii Heat Treatment

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Unit - Ii Heat Treatment

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UNIT - II

Heat treatment is an operation or combination of

The major objectives are

ANNEALING NORMALIZING HARDENING

Stress Relief Annealing AUSTEMPERING LASER Carbo-nitriding

Spheroidization Annealing Electron Beam

1) Heating of the material at the

1) Relieve Internal stresses developed during solidification,

723C Full Annealing

Spheroidization Stress Relief Annealing

723C Full Annealing

Annealing: Process Annealing

 Cooling rate is of little

 The purpose of this

Annealing: Process Annealing

 Parts which are fabricated

 Scaling or oxidation can be

Annealing: Stress Relieving

 These stresses are developed in operations like:

Solidification of castings, welding, machining, grinding, shot peening,

Annealing: Stress Relieving

These stresses also enhance the tendency

 Fatigue strength is reduced considerably

 The problems associated with internal

Annealing: Stress Relieving

 In some special cases,

 Since the temperature involved

 Steels are soft in annealed

 Normalizing is the effective

 To refine the grain structure,

Differene between Annealing & Normalizing

Time Temperature Transformation (TTT) Diagram:

 TTT diagram indicates when

Time Temperature Transformation (TTT) Diagram:

Time Temperature Transformation (TTT) Diagram:

 Specify the nature of the final

 Alloy begins at 760˚C and has

 Specify the nature of the final

 Treatment (b) Martensite,

 Hardening is a heat treatment

 Hardening treatment generally

 Ferrite and pearlite transform to austenite at hardening temperature for

Hardening Temperature: The steel should be heat treated to optimum austenitising

Soaking Time: Soaking time at hardening temperature should be long enough to

Delay in quenching: After soaking, the steel is immediately quenched. Delay in

 Because of rapid cooling, high

 Tempering is a sub-critical heat

 Tempering consists of reheating

Thus tempering allows to precipitate

 The temperatures are related to the

 Depending on temperatures, tempering processes can be classified as:

1) Low- temperature tempering

3) High – temperature tempering

 It is an index of the depth to which

 The term Hardenability is used to

 While in the oil quenching, the

Hardenability: Jominy End Quench Test

 The Jominy test involves heating a standard test piece of diameter 25 mm

Hardenability: Jominy End Quench Test

 After a quenching, a flat of 0.38

 A bar of steel having good

 During cooling, heat must be extracted at

 Under ideal conditions, all the heat