Course (EEE-800)

Power System Operation, Control and

Optimization
By

Dr. Abraiz Khattak

​
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering (power)
U.S.-Pakistan Center for Advanced Studies in Energy (USPCAS-E)

National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST)

1
Characteristics of Steam Generating
Units and Basic Optimization
Dr. Abraiz Khattak
​
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Power Engineering
U.S.-Pakistan Center for Advanced Studies in Energy (USPCAS-E)

National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST)

 INPUT-OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS
• Input-Output characteristics is the
fundamental curve for a thermal plant.
• This curve can be obtained from design
calculation or from heat rates test.
• It is a plot of the input in British thermal units
(Btu) per hour versus the power output of the
plant in MW .
 INPUT-OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

Pmin : caused by fuel combustion stability and inherent steam

generator design constraints, ≈ 30% PR (for large steam units)
Pmax : Turbines do not have any inherent overload capability ≤ 1.05
PR
Incremental heat (cost) rate characteristics

• The heat rate is the ratio of fuel input in Btu to

energy output in kWh.
• It is the slope of the input – output curve at any
point
• The reciprocal of heat rate is called fuel
efficiency.
• The heat rate curve is a plot of heat rate versus
output in MW
Incremental heat (cost) rate characteristics
INCREMENTAL FUEL RATE CURVE
• The incremental fuel rate is equal to a small
change in input divided by the corresponding
change in output.
• Incremental fuel rate = ∆ Input/ ∆ Output
• The unit is again Btu / KWh. A plot of
incremental fuel rate versus the output.
 INCREMENTAL COST CURVE
• The incremental cost is the product of incremental fuel
rate and fuel cost (Rs / Btu or $ /Btu).
• The unit of the incremental fuel cost is Rs / MWh or
$ /MWh.
• Typically curves can be approximated using
– quadratic or cubic functions
– piecewise linear functions
• Relying on the quadratic nature of HR, we will use a
quadratic cost equation
• Standard quadratic representation is...?
 Economic Dispatch- A Glance
• Economic Dispatch (ED) is defined as the process of allocating
generation levels to the generating units in the mix, so that the
system load is supplied entirely and most economically. In static
economic dispatch, the objective is to calculate, for a single period of
time, the output power of every generating unit so that all the
demands are satisfied at the minimum cost, while satisfying different
technical constraints of the network and the generators.
• The simplest case of economic dispatch is the case when transmission
losses are neglected.
• The model does not consider the system configuration or line
impedances. Since losses are neglected, the total generation is equal
to the total demand PD.
 Optimization
• Optimization, is the selection of a best element (with regard to some
criterion) from some set of available alternatives.
• Choosing inputs that result in best possible outputs. This can mean
variety of things such as
 The cost effective allocation of resources
 To produce design with best characteristics
 To choose control variables that cause the system to behave as desired
• Involve limits/constraints
• Using max/min to optimize real world problems
• Get two equations
• Plug one equation into the other and simplify
• Take derivative of this new equation set equal to zero and solve.
X,Y optimized values
Unconstrained and Constrained Optimization
• An unconstrained optimization problem is one where you only have to be
concerned with the objective function.
• An objective function is a function that you are trying to optimize.
• None of the variables in the objective function are constrained.
• Unconstrained optimization problem minx F(x) or max F(x).
• For example reach Islamabad to Peshawar in minimum possible time.
• A constrained optimization is the process of optimizing an objective function with
respect to some variables in the presence of constraints on those variables.
• Variables in the objective function are constrained.
• constrained optimization problem min x F(x) or max x F(x) subject to g(x) = 0
and/or h(x) < 0 or h(x) > 0
• For example Minimize time to reach from Islamabad to Peshawar
but Fuel cost must be < 10 Rs/1.4 km or safety (assume measurable)= 80%
Objective function is time minimization
Constraint : Cost/km
 Examples
• Example -1: The Product is 192 and the sum is minimum.
Sol: X*Y=192 (1)
X+Y=M (2)
So we want to optimize (2), so we have to take its derivative
Three variables so we cant take derivative.
So from (1) X=192/Y+ Y= M put it in (2)
We get M =(192Y^-1)+Y, now take derivative
dM/dy= -192Y^-2 +1
Take it equal to zero
0= -192Y^-2 +1 => Y= ± Sqrt (192)
Now if Y= +Sqrt (192)
then X= 192/ Sqrt (192)
and if Y=- sqrt192 then X= -192/sqrt192
 Examples
• Example 2: Find Dimensions of a rectangle with area 1000 m^2, with
perimeter as small as possible.
Y

Area: XY= 1000 (Constraint)………….. (1)

Min: Perimeter P= 2x+2y………………. (2)
Now y= 1000/x Put in (2)
Perimeter P= 2x+2 (1000x^-1) now take derivative
dp/dx= 2+ 2000/x^2
= (2x^2 - 2000)/x^2=0 => 2x^2 - 2000=0
 Example 2: Contd..
• 2x^2 - 2000=> x^2= 1000
• X= sqrt (1000)
• Now put in (1) we get
• Y= Sqrt (1000) so we have special type of
rectangle i.e. Square
 Optimization with Lagrange Multiplier
• Example Optimize f(x,y,z) subject to g (x,y,z)=k (Constant)
• Form new function involving ‘λ’
• f(x,y,z, λ)= f(x,y,z)- λ(g (x,y,z)-k)……………….. (1)
• After that we will take partial derivative with respect each variable and set the
equation equal to zero, Fx= 0, Fy=0, Fz=0 and F λ =0
• Example : Two types of Laptops are produced by two different companies A and
B, suppose x Laptops are produced by company A and ‘y’ laptops are produced
by company B. Suppose the cost is given by
C(x,y)= 6x2+12y2
• If we need 90 laptops, what number of laptops should be purchased from each
factory.
• Objective function is 6x2+12y2 and constraint= x+y=90
• Applying (1)

• F(x,y, λ ) = 6x2+12y2 -λ(x+y-90) = 6x2+12y2 –λx- λ y-90 λ

 Optimization with Lagrange Multiplier
• Partial derivative w.r.t each variable will give following three equations
Fx= 12 x- λ = 0 ….. (A) => x= λ/12
Fy= 24y- λ =0……(B) => λ/24
F λ =-x-y-90=0 …..(C)
(A) => x= λ/12
(B) => λ/12 putting in (C) we get
(- λ/12)-(λ/24)+90 => (-3λ/24)= -90
Þλ=720
Now ‘x’ and ‘y’=?
Put value of λ in (A) and (B)
X= 720/12= 60
Y=720/24= 30
C(60,30)= 6(60)2+ 12(30)2
C(60,30)= 32400 putting any other values instead of 60 and 30 whose sum is 90
instead of 60 and 30 Will give greater cost than 32400
 Linear Programming
• Linear programming has nothing to do with
computer programming.
• The use of the word “programming” here
means “choosing a course of action.”
• Linear programming involves choosing a
course of action when the mathematical
model of the problem contains only linear
functions.
Linear Programming Problem
Next: Application in power system
Economic Dispatch and Unit
Commitment
 THE ECONOMIC DISPATCH PROBLEM

• A power system has several power plants. Each

power plant has several generating units. At any
point of time, the total load in the system is met
by the generating units in different power plants.
Economic dispatch control determines the power
output of each power plant, and power output of
each generating unit within a power plant , which
will minimize the overall cost of fuel needed to
serve the system load.
THE ECONOMIC DISPATCH PROBLEM
 THE ECONOMIC DISPATCH PROBLEM
• Let we have N number of thermal generating units, connected
to a single bus-bar which serve a load of P1oad.
• The input to each unit, shown as F represents the cost rate-
of the unit.
• The output of each unit, Pi is the electrical power generated
by that particular unit.
• The total cost rate of this system is, of course, the sum of the
costs of each of the individual units.
• The essential constraint on the operation of this system is that
the sum of the output powers must equal the load demand.
 Formulation of Problem
• Any transmission losses are neglected and
any operating limits are not explicitly stated
when formulating this problem. That is

• (A)

• (B)
 Formulation of Problem
• In order to establish the necessary conditions for an
extreme value of the objective function, add the constraint
function to the objective function after the constraint
function has been multiplied by an undetermined multiplier.
This is known as the Lagrange function given following

• Recall….. FT is objective function. Ø is constraint and λ is

Lagrange multiplier .
• Putting FT and Ø from (A) and (B), taking partial derivative w.r.t.
Pi and taking-0, we get
•That is, the necessary condition for the existence of a minimum cost operating
condition for the thermal power system is that the incremental cost rates of all the
units be equal to some undetermined value, Lambda.
• To this necessary condition we must add the constraint equation that the sum of the
power outputs must be equal to the power demanded by the load.
•In addition, there are two inequalities that must be satisfied for each of the units.
That is, the power output of each unit must be greater than or equal to the minimum
power permitted and must also be less than or equal to the maximum power
permitted on that particular unit.
•These conditions and inequalities may be summarized as shown in the set of
equations making up
• When we recognize the inequality constraints,
then the necessary conditions may be expanded
slightly as shown in the set of equations.

(C)

• Because on the basis of following increasing λ will

decrease Ø (Power demand and supply)
 Numerical Problems
1.
 Numerical Problem
2.
Numerical Problems
Numerical Problems
Numerical Problems
 Numerical Problems
For the remaining economic dispatch problems. We will use the following
three generator units.
 Numerical Problems
3. Determine the economic operating point for these three units
when delivering a total of 850 MW. Let the following fuel costs
be in effect.
 Numerical Problems
• 4. In previous example Suppose the price of
coal decreased to 0.9 . . The fuel cost
function for unit 1 becomes
THERMAL SYSTEM DISPATCHING WITH NETWORK
LOSSES CONSIDERED
 Economic Dispatch with Consideration of Network Losses
• Generated power must be equal to Pload+Ploss
• So

•The loss in the transmission network, Ploss is a function of the network

Impedances and the currents flowing in the network. For our purposes, the
currents will be considered only as a function of the independent variables Pi and the
Pload.
• Applying Lagrange optimization technique
 Numerical Problem
• 6. Repeat example 1 with following losses

• Applying Lagrange optimization technique

• On all three units equations
 Numerical Problem
• We can not follow the same procedure due to new extra
variable of Ploss. Therefore following five steps will be followed.
Numerical Problem

By putting values of P1, P2 and P3 in

losses equation
Numerical Problem
Numerical Problem
 Numerical Problem
• Continue the iteration until the difference is
negligible. Table shows the iteration used to
solve this problem
Economic Dispatch (The λ iteration Method)

• An iterative process
• assume an incremental cost rate 𝜆 and find the sum of
the power outputs for this rate
• the first estimate will be incorrect
• If the total power output is too low, increase the 𝜆
value, or if too high, decrease the 𝜆 value
• with two solutions, a closer value of total power can be
extrapolated or interpolated
• the steps are repeated until the desired output is
reached.
 Economic Dispatch (The λ iteration Method)
• This procedure can be adopted for a
computer implementation
• as an iterative procedure, a stopping criterion
must be established
• two general stopping rules are appropriate for
this application
• total output power is within a specified
tolerance of the load demand iteration loop
count exceeds a maximum value.
Economic Dispatch (The λ iteration Method)
 Numerical Problem
4. Let a cubic function is to represent the input-output characteristics of generating
plants as follows. Let Pload= 2500 MW

For the three units, find the optimum schedule using the lambda-iteration
method.

Assume the fuel cost to be 1.0 for each unit and unit limits as
follows.
Numerical Problem
Numerical Problem
 Base Point and Participation Factors

• The optimal generating scheduling need to be

solved for different load conditions because load
demand PD keeps changing. When load changes are
small, it is possible to move from one optimal
schedule to another using participating factors.
Base Point and Participation Factors
 Numerical Problems
7.
Numerical Problems
Unit Commitment
 Unit Commitment vs. Economic Dispatch

• Economic dispatch gives the optimum

schedule corresponding to one particular
load on the system. The total load in the
power system varies throughout the day
and reaches different peak value from one
day to another. Different combination of
generators, are to be connected in the
system to meet the varying load.
 Why Unit Commitment
• When the load increases, the utility has to decide in
advance the sequence in which the generator units are to
be brought in. Similarly, when the load decreases, the
operating engineer need to know in advance the sequence
in which the generating units are to be shut down.
• The problem of finding the order in which the units
are to be brought in and the order in which the units
are to be shut down over a period of time, say one day, so
the total operating cost involved on that day is minimum,
is known as Unit Commitment (UC) problem. Thus UC
problem is economic dispatch over a day. The period
considered may a week, month or a year.
 Main advantage
• A great deal of money can be saved by turning
units off (decommiting them) when they are
not needed.
 Numerical Problems
1.

What unit or combination of units should be used

to supply a load of 550 MW most economically?
 Numerical Problems
• To solve this problem, simply try all combination of three units.

• Note that the least expensive way of meeting the load is not with all the
three units running, or any combination involving two units. Rather it is
economical to run unit one alone.
 CONSTRAINTS ON UC PROBLEM
1. Spinning reserve: There may be sudden increase in load, more than what
was predicted. Further there may be a situation that one generating
unit may have to be shut down because of fault in generator or any of
its auxiliaries. Some system capacity has to be kept as spinning reserve i) to
meet an unexpected increase in demand and
ii) to ensure power supply in the event of any generating unit suffering a
forced outage.
2. Minimum up time: When a thermal unit is brought in, it cannot be
turned off immediately. Once it is committed, it has to be in the
system for a specified minimum up time.
3. Minimum down time: When a thermal unit is decommitted, it cannot be
turned on immediately. It has to remain decommitted for a specified
minimum down time.
4. Crew constraint: A plant always has two or more generating units. It may not
be possible to turn on more than one generating unit at the same time due
to non-availability of operating personnel.
 CONSTRAINTS ON UC PROBLEM
6. Hydro constraints: Most of the systems have hydroelectric units also. The
operation of hydro units, depend on the availability of water. Moreover,
hydro-projects are multipurpose projects. Irrigation requirements also
determine the operation of hydro plants.
7. Nuclear constraint: If a nuclear plant is part of the system, another constraint is
added. A nuclear plant has to be operated as a base load plant only.

8. Must run unit: Sometime it is a must to run one or two units from the
consideration of voltage support and system stability.

9. Fuel supply constraint: Some plants cannot be operated due to

deficient fuel supply.

10. Transmission line limitation: Reserve must be spread around the

power system to avoid transmission system limitation, often called
“bottling” of reserves.