Chapter 03: Thinking like a researcher

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 Learning Objectives

 Understand . . .
 The terminology used by professional
researchers employing scientific thinking.
 What you need to formulate a solid
research hypothesis.
 The need for sound reasoning to enhance
research results.

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 Research and Attitudes
“Brand communities play a pivotal role for a
brand connecting with its consumers, and as
one of our Never Ending Friending focus group
respondent notes: “I want brands to be my
friends,” which means that consumers would
like to have common ideas, conversations and
benefits delivered to them on their own terms.”

Judit Nagy
vice president, consumer insights
MySpace/Fox Interactive Media
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 PulsePoint:
Research Revelations

55
The percent of executives who
admitted that their companies do not
have an official policy for social
networks.

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 Language of Research

Conceptual
Concepts Constructs
schemes

Operational
Models
definitions
Terms used
in research
Theory Variables

Propositions/
Hypotheses
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 Language of Research

Clear conceptualization
of concepts
Success
of
Research Shared understanding
of concepts

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 Job Redesign
Constructs and Concepts

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 Operational Definitions

How can we define the variable

“class level of students”?

•Freshman •< 30 credit hours

•Sophomore •30-50 credit hours
•Junior •60-89 credit hours
•Senior •> 90 credit hours

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 A Variable Is the Property Being
Studied

Event Act

Variable

Characteristic Trait

Attribute

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 Types of Variables

Male/Female
Dichotomous Employed/ Unemployed

Ethnic background
Discrete Educational level
Religious affiliation

Income
Temperature
Continuous Age

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 Independent and Dependent
Variable Synonyms

•Independent Variable •Dependent Variable

(IV) (DV)
•Predictor •Criterion
•Presumed cause •Presumed effect
•Stimulus •Response
•Predicted from… •Predicted to….
•Antecedent •Consequence
•Manipulated •Measured outcome
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 Relationships Among Variable
Types

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 Relationships Among Variable
Types

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 Relationships Among Variable Types

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 Moderating Variables (MV)

The introduction of a four-day week (IV) will lead

to higher productivity (DV), especially among
younger workers (MV)
The switch to commission from a salary
compensation system (IV) will lead to increased
sales (DV) per worker, especially more
experienced workers (MV).
The loss of mining jobs (IV) leads to acceptance
of higher-risk behaviors to earn a family-
supporting income (DV) – particularly among
those with a limited education (MV).
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 Extraneous Variables (EV)

With new customers (EV-control), a switch to

commission from a salary compensation system
(IV) will lead to increased sales productivity (DV)
per worker, especially among younger workers
(MV).

Among residents with less than a high school

education (EV-control), the loss of jobs (IV) leads
to high-risk behaviors (DV), especially due to the
proximity of the firing range (MV).
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 Intervening Variables (IVV)

The switch to a commission compensation

system (IV) will lead to higher sales (DV) by
increasing overall compensation (IVV).

A promotion campaign (IV) will increase savings

activity (DV), especially when free prizes are
offered (MV), but chiefly among smaller savers
(EV-control). The results come from enhancing
the motivation to save (IVV).
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 Propositions and Hypotheses

 Brand Manager Jones (case) has a higher-than-

average achievement motivation (variable).

 Brand managers in Company Z (cases) have a

Generalization
higher-than-average achievement motivation
(variable).

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 Hypothesis Formats

•Descriptive •Research Question

Hypothesis •What is the market
•In Detroit, our potato share for our potato
chip market share stands chips in Detroit?
at 13.7%. •Are American cities
•American cities are experiencing budget
experiencing budget difficulties?
difficulties.

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 Relational Hypotheses

•Correlational
•Young women (under 35)
purchase fewer units of our
product than women who
are older than 35.
•The number of suits sold
varies directly with the level
of the business cycle.
•Causal
•An increase in family
income leads to an increase
in the percentage of income
saved.
•Loyalty to a grocery store
increases the probability of
purchasing that store’s
private brand products.

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 The Role of Hypotheses

Guide the direction of the study

Identify relevant facts

Suggest most appropriate research design

Provide framework for organizing resulting

conclusions
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 Characteristics of Strong Hypotheses

Adequate
A
Strong
Testable
Hypothesis
Is
Better
than rivals
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 Theory within Research

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 The Role of Reasoning

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 A Model within Research

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 The Scientific Method

Direct observation

Clearly defined variables

Clearly defined methods

Empirically testable

Elimination of alternatives

Statistical justification

Self-correcting process
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 Researchers

•Encounter problems
•State problems
•Propose hypotheses
•Deduce outcomes
•Formulate rival
hypotheses
•Devise and conduct
empirical tests
•Draw conclusions

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 Curiosity Is the Ally of a Researcher

•Synovate’s campaign
associates important
discoveries in research to a
common trait of
entrepreneurs: curiosity.

•As one of the world’s

largest research
organizations, it claims
curiosity is “what makes us
tick.”
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 Sound Reasoning

Types of Discourse

Exposition Argument

Deduction Induction

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 Deductive Reasoning

Inner-city household
interviewing is especially
difficult and expensive

This survey involves

substantial inner-city
household interviewing

The interviewing in this

survey will be especially
difficult and expensive
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 Inductive Reasoning

 Why didn’t sales increase during our

promotional event?
 Regional retailers did not have sufficient stock
to fill customer requests during the promotional
period
 A strike by employees prevented stock from
arriving in time for promotion to be effective
 A hurricane closed retail outlets in the region for
10 days during the promotion

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 Why Didn’t Sales Increase?

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 Tracy’s Performance

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 Key Terms
• Argument • Induction
• Case • Model
• Concept • Operational definition
• Conceptual scheme • Proposition
• Construct • Sound reasoning
• Deduction • Theory
• Empiricism • Variable
• Exposition – Control
• Hypothesis – Confounding (CFV)
– Correlational – Dependent (DV)
– Descriptive – Extraneous (EV)
– Explanatory – Independent (IV)
– Relational – Intervening (IVV)
• Hypothetical construct – Moderating (MV)

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