PARTHENOGENESIS

Parthenogenesis:

Parthenogenesis is a type of asexual reproduction in which a female

gamete or egg cell develops into an individual without fertilization.
or
Parthenogenesis is defined as unfertilized ovum development
without fertilization.

Those individuals that reproduce by parthenogenesis are known as

parthenos.

The spermatozoa cannot develop without fertilization except in rare

cases where it is artificially fertilized with a nucleus free egg and the
process is known as merogony.
Types of Parthenogenesis:

 Reproduction

 Sex determination

 Cytological basis
Reproduction:

 Tychoparthenogenesis

 Obligatory

 Facultative

 Rudimentary

 Artificial parthenogenesis
Tychoparthenogenesis:

 Also called as accidental parthenogenesis.

 The rare or occasional production of eggs that start developing

without having been fertilized.

 This type of parthenogenesis occurs in Bombyx mori

Obligatory parthenogenesis:

 Ovum and eggs always develop parthenogenetically and

development either complete and females are produced.
 In obligatory parthenogenesis, there is another subtype known
as cyclical parthenogenesis in which there are one or more
parthenogenetic generations which alternates with bisexual
generations, e.g.; Aphids.

 Paedogenesis / Neoteny is also a subtype of obligatory

parthenogenesis, the larval stage become sexually mature with
well developed ovaries and start laying eggs or give birth to
young larvae, e.g.; Gall flies.

Facultative parthenogenesis:

 The eggs develop parthenogenetically or fertilization may takes

place, e.g.; Locust.
Rudimentary parthenogenesis:

• Though the egg start developing parthenogenetically but

only upto certain embryonic stages and then stops, e.g.;
Mosquitoes.

Artificial parthenogenesis:

• Eggs develop parthenogenetically but require external

stimuli in variable forms like chemicals, mechanical probe,
temperature, etc.
Sex-determination:

o Arrhenotoky

o Thelytoky

o Amphitoky
Arrhenotoky:

 The unfertilized eggs develop always into males whereas

fertilized eggs develop into females, e.g.; most Hymenopterans.

Thelytoky:

 The unfertilzed eggs always developed into females, e.g.;

Phasmids.

Amphitoky:

 Unfertilized eggs either develop into males or females, e.g.; leaf

cutting Ants.


Cytological:

o Generatative or haploid parthenogenesis

o Somatic or diploid parthenogenesis

Generative or haploid parthenogenesis

 It occurs in Homoptera, Thysanoptera, Hymenoptera.

 Oogonia has typical meiotic division and haploid ova are

produced.

 Haploid ova develops parthenogenetically into males whereas

the fertilized eggs are diploid and develop into females.
 Here the males always developes parthenogenetically but not
the females hence known as haploid or generative
parthenogenesis.

 The spermatogonia is abnormal and the haploid males have to

produce haploid sperms without any reduction division or
meiosis.

 So, the haploid males modify spermatogenesis so that it should

be non reductive.
• These three modifications are:

1. Abortive meiosis 1st which is found in Hymenopterans.

2. The second modification is abortive meiosis 2nd.

• In this process, the primary spermatocytes divide

amitotically into two secondary spermatocytes without
meiosis 1st.

• 2nd meiotic division is abortive and each secondary

spermatocytes forms small non- nucleated bud and
spermatid.

• It is found in scelenoid wasps.

3. Third modification is equational division.

• The occurrence of one mitotic division in the

spermatocytes to produce two spermatids.

• It occurs in white fly.

Somatic or diploid parthenogenesis:

Eggs are diploid which develops into females and the oogenesis is
modified in such a way to obtain diploid number of ovum or ova.

It is of two types:

a) Automictic/ Meiotic parthenogenesis

b) Apomictic/ Ameiotic parthenogenesis

a) Automictic/ Meiotic parthenogenesis:

• The diploid primary oocytes undergoes meiosis 1st to produce

haploid secondary oocytes and the first polar body.

• This secondary oocyte divides by meiosis 2nd to form haploid

ovum and the second polar body but the diploid status of the
ovum is only obtained by a process called Automixis.
• The different mechanisms seen or performed to gain diploid
ovum.

1. Fusion of cleavage nuclei :

• The process in which primary oocytes undergo meosis 1st to

form two haploid secondary oocytes.

• These secondary oocytes further undergoes meiosis 2nd to

produce 4 haploid ova and then fuses in pairs to form diploid
ova and then develop into two 2 different females.

• E.g,; Psychid moths.

2. Fusion of second polar body :

• There is occurrence of normal meiosis 1st and 2nd but it is followed

by the fusion of the 2nd polar body to regain diploid status of the
ova / ovum.

E.g.; Screw Saw flies and scale insects.

3. Non-separation at meiosis 2nd :

• It occurs in Psychid moth.

• The primary oocyte undergoes meiosis 1st to form secondary

oocyte which further undergoes meiosis 2nd but at this stage, the
secondary oocyte do not separate and fuse together to form 2
diploid ova.
4. Single Metaphase plate at meiosis 2nd :

 The chromosomes though divide and arrange themselves at the

equatorial plate but does not show a complete metaphase stage
and then again forms the diploid status.

 It occurs in Psychid moth.

The other mechanisms are abarent meiosis 1st and 2nd

found in parasitic wasps.

Premeiotic endomitosis occurs in Australian females

grasshoppers to produce diploid ova.
b) Apomictic/ Ameiotic parthenogenesis:

 The female lacks meiotic division during oogenesis and they have only
one maturation division and no reductional division to regain diploid
character.

 Though in some insects like aphids, the rudimentary chromosome pairing

occurs which is actually not the meiosis and then transformed into diploid
ovum.

 In Saw fly, there is only one mitotic division without pairing.

 In a Cockroach, the two divisions occur with pairing and considered a

rare type in which 1st division is rudimentary like meiosis 1st and do not
form chiasma but separated out , then each divide mitotically to regain
diploid characterstics.