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Steel NDT Ultrasonic - Level II Powerpoint
Steel NDT Ultrasonic - Level II Powerpoint
LEVEL II
ACTS
ESSENTIALS
• UT Level II course (SNT-TC-1A)
• Instructor
• Format
• Class Hours: 8:00am to 4:30pm.
• Breaks: At the discretion of the instructor.
• Lunch: 1 hour 12:00 – 1:00pm
• Cell phones off
• Restroom locations
• Safety – Evacuation route
ACTS
LET’S GET ACQUAINTED
• Name:
• Company:
• Job Title:
• Background:
ACTS
KEY SUBJECTS
• I – Review of Ultrasonic Testing Principles
• II – UT Equipment and Calibration
• III – Evaluation of Base Material Product
Forms
• IV – Ultrasonic Testing Applications
• VI – Transducer Characteristics
• VII – Codes, Standards and Specifications
• VIII - Evaluation of UT Results
ACTS
PURPOSE
• To review the theory and principles of Ultrasonic
Testing
• To become proficient with UT equipment,
materials, techniques and calibrations
• To perform Level II Ultrasonic Tests
• To identify, interpret and evaluate discontinuities
• To understand the applicable UT standards,
specifications and procedures
• To document test results
ACTS
OBJECTIVES
• To understand advanced principles of UT
• To become familiar with the many applications of UT
• To relate UT responses with discontinuity types
• To understand common techniques, procedures and
requirements
• To perform various Level II UT examinations
• To be able to interpret test results to various codes
and prepare test reports
• Pass the final examination
ACTS
PURPOSE AND
OBJECTIVES
• Purpose: To present the body of knowledge
for Level II Ultrasonic Testing.
ACTS
I – REVIEW OF UT PRINCIPLES
ACTS
FIVE BASIC ELEMENTS OF UT
1. Qualified personnel
2. Qualified procedure
3. Calibrated equipment
4. Test performance
5. Accurate data evaluation and recording
ACTS
SOUND PROPAGATION
• Sound
– the passage of mechanical energy through
a medium (i.e., vibrations in motion)
• Ability to propagate depends upon:
– material composition
– wavelength, which is a function of:
• velocity
• frequency
ACTS
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND
• Vibrational forces in motion
• Travels at specific velocities in a given
material
• Has frequency
• And wavelength
• It attenuates
• It reflects
ACTS
VELOCITY
• Velocity depends on:
– material properties (density and
elasticity)
– wave mode (longitudinal, shear, surface,
etc.)
– material temperature
ACTS
VELOCITY
• Velocity is constant in a given homogeneous
(uniform) material
– which allows distance to be calculated by
measuring sound travel time
– however, distance and thickness measurements
will be inaccurate if the test material velocity
varies from the velocity of the reference
standard
ACTS
VELOCITY
• Calculations involving velocity can be
simplified by using kilometers/second as
units
• But, for microprocessor-based instruments
to read out in inches, velocities must be
entered in inch units
– conversion: 1 inch = 2.54 centimeters
ACTS
FREQUENCY
• Frequency is defined as:
– the rate of vibration, or
– the number of complete waves that pass a
given point in one second
• A wave is generated
from one full cycle of
transducer vibration
ACTS
WAVELENGTH
• Wavelength () is
defined as:
– the distance from
one point on a wave
train to the next
identical point
– the distance sound
travels within the
duration of one
complete cycle
ACTS
WAVELENGTH
V
The following equation is used for calculating wavelength:
f V V V
Wavelength ( mm )
f
f
Where:
= wavelength (mm)
V = velocity (Km/sec)
f = frequency (MHz)
ACTS
WAVELENGTH
Example
Calculate wavelength where:
f = 7.5 MHz V = TitaniumL(6.1 Km/sec)
6 .1
0.81mm
7 .5
ACTS
WAVELENGTH CALCULATIONS
Calculate the wavelength for the following
where: v/f
1. Transducer is 0.5” diameter, 5.0 MHz,
material is steel. (straight beam)
2. Transducer is 1.0” diameter, 1.0 MHz,
material is water. (straight beam)
3. Angle beam transducer is .75 “diameter,
2.25 MHz, material is aluminum (shear
wave)
ACTS
ATTENUATION
• Material Loss Attenuation
– amplitude losses caused by the structure of the
test material
• scattering: reflection of sound by coarse
grain structure, impurities, or fine porosity
• absorption: conversion of sound into heat by
friction among vibrating particles
– occurs at a linear rate (e.g., 1 decibel per inch)
ACTS
ATTENUATION
• Small reflectors
• Intercepts only a portion of the sound beam
• Echo amplitude is inversely proportional to
the square of the distance
• As distance is doubled, echo amplitude
decreases by 12 dB
ACTS
ATTENUATION - TOTAL
• Total attenuation results from a
combination of both beam spread and
material losses
ACTS
REFLECTION PRINCIPLES
• Sound reflects when it strikes an acoustic
interface
ACTS
REFLECTION PRINCIPLES
• Acoustic impedance is the opposition that
individual material particles offer to being
dislodged by sound
• Acoustic impedance = Velocity x Density
(Z =V x ρ)
• The greater the acoustic impedance
difference, the greater the percentage of
reflection
ACTS
REFLECTION
Formula for calculating reflected energy
(RE):
2
Z Z
% RE 100
2 1
Z Z 2 1
where:
Z1 = impedance of material through which sound is
traveling
Z2 = impedance of material sound strikes at the interface
Z Z
% RE 2
100
1
Z Z
2 1
2
149 4560
%RE 100 87.74%
149 4560
ACTS
REFLECTION
Z Z
% RE 2
100
1
Z Z
2 1
where:
Z1 = impedance of material through which sound is traveling
Z2 = impedance of material sound strikes at the interface
Z Z
% RE 2
100
1
Z Z
2 1
0.33 4560
% RE 99.97%
0.33 4560
ACTS
REFLECTION
• Echo performance is also affected by the
size, shape, orientation, texture, and
thickness of reflector
• Sound can be scattered by small interfaces
as it travels through a given material
– because the material's structure may
include grain boundaries, porosity, or
impurities
ACTS
THE SOUND BEAM
ACTS
THE SOUND BEAM
• The sound beam consists of a near field
(Fresnel zone) and a far field (Fraunhofer
zone)
– The end of the near field (and the beginning of
the far field) is called the Y0 Point.
ACTS
THE SOUND BEAM
• The varying phase relationships in the near
field cause varying wave amplitudes
– therefore, it is difficult to estimate reflector size
in the near field
ACTS
THE SOUND BEAM
• The far field provides a predictable and
correctable decrease in sound pressure as
distance from the transducer increases
– therefore, reflector size can be estimated in the
far field
ACTS
THE SOUND BEAM
• The length of the near field can be
calculated from the following formula:
D2 f 2
N D f
N 4 V
Where: 4 V
N = Near Field Length (mm) f = Frequency (MHz)
D = Crystal Diameter (mm) V = Velocity (Km/sec)
ACTS
THE SOUND BEAM
Example
Calculate the Near Field where:
D = ¾ inches f = 7.5 MHz V = TitaniumL
D f 2
N
4 V
19.05 7.5
N 111 .55mm 4.39"
4 6 .1
ACTS
THE SOUND BEAM
• Beam Divergence can be calculated from
the following formula:
1.22 V
arcsin
Where: D f
= Beam Divergence Angle f = Frequency (MHz)
D = Crystal Diameter (mm) V = Velocity (Km/sec)
ACTS
THE SOUND BEAM
Example
Calculate the Beam Divergence where:
D = ¾ inches f = 7.5 MHz V = TitaniumL
1.22 V
arcsin
D f
1.22 6.1
arcsin 2.99
0
19.05 7.5
ACTS
WAVE MODES
Compressional Waves
• Also called Longitudinal Waves
• Travels in solids, liquids, and gases
• This is the highest velocity wave mode
– consists of alternating zones of compression
and rarefaction
ACTS
WAVE MODES
Transverse Waves
• Also called Shear Waves
• Particle motion is perpendicular to wave travel
and
• Travel in solids only at approximately half the
velocity of Compressional Waves
• Consists of alternating zones of peaks and troughs
ACTS
SHEAR WAVE THEORY
• Sound beam
approaching interface
(Compressional Wave)
is called incident beam
• Angle of Incidence:
angle formed by the
incident beam and a
line perpendicular to
the interface
ACTS
SHEAR WAVE THEORY
• Sound beam is
reflected at the
interface
– Angle of Reflection:
angle formed by the
reflected beam and a
line perpendicular to
the interface
– Angle of reflection
equals the angle of
incidence
ACTS
SHEAR WAVE THEORY
• Refraction
– When a sound beam
passes at an angle other
than perpendicular to
the interface, between
two materials of
different acoustic
velocity, a change in
beam direction called Refracted Beam
refraction occurs
ACTS
SHEAR WAVE THEORY
• Mode Conversion
– occurs when a sound beam
is
incident to an interface
at an
angle other than 90
degrees. A portion of the
incident beam's energy
converts to a shear wave at
the interface an angle other
than the angle of incidence
ACTS
SHEAR WAVE THEORY
• Snell's Law defines the relationships between
incident and other sound beams:
sin Velocity
sin
incident
Velocity
incident
sin
Velocity Velocity
incident incident
sinrefracted refracted
refracted refracted
ACTS
SHEAR WAVE THEORY
Example
Calculate the Incident Angle where:
V1 = Acrylic Plastic (2.67 Km/sec)
V2 =Steel T (3.23 Km/sec) Refracted Angle = 700
sin Velocity
incident
incident
sinrefracted
Velocity refracted
sin 2.67
incident
50.97 0
sin 70 3.23 0
ACTS
SHEAR WAVE THEORY
• Critical Angles
– The first critical angle is
the incident angle that
causes the longitudinal
beam to be refracted 90
degrees
ACTS
SHEAR WAVE THEORY
• Critical
Angles(continued)
– The second critical angle
is the incident angle that
causes the shear beam to
be refracted 90 degrees
– surface waves start to Refracted Shear
ACTS
SHEAR WAVE THEORY
Example
Calculate the First Critical Angle where:
V1 = Acrylic Plastic (2.67 Km/sec)
V2 =Steel L (5.85 Km/sec)
sin Velocity
incident
incident
sinrefracted
Velocity refracted
sin 2.67
incident
27.26 0
1 5.85
ACTS
SHEAR WAVE THEORY
Example
Calculate the Second Critical Angle where:
V1 = Acrylic Plastic (2.67 Km/sec)
V2 =Steel T (3.23 Km/sec)
sin Velocity
incident
incident
sinrefracted
Velocity refracted
sin 2.67
incident
55.75 0
1 3.23
ACTS
WAVE MODES
Rayleigh Waves
• Also called Surface Waves
• Travel along the material surface with elliptical
particle motion
• Velocity is approximately 90 percent of shear waves
ACTS
WAVE MODES
Plate Waves
• Also called Lamb waves
• Propagation occurs only in thin sheet materials
– when material thickness is less than three wavelengths
• Two modes; symmetrical and asymmetrical
ACTS
DATA DISPLAY
• A-scan
– horizontal scale:
displays time to
indicate distance
– vertical scale:
displays transducer
output voltage to
indicate echo
amplitude
ACTS
DATA DISPLAY
ACTS
DATA PRESENTATION
ACTS
II – UT EQUIPMENT AND
CALIBRATION
• Instrument functions
• Equipment types
• Equipment calibration
• Calibration and reference standards
• Test performance variables
• Instrument performance evaluation
ACTS
BLOCK HELLIER
DIAGRAM
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
The instrument contains six basic sections:
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
Connecting a transducer and coupling it to
the test object completes the test system
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
The Power Supply provides voltage from the AC
or batteries to drive the other instrument circuits
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
The clock initiates the chain of events that
results in one complete cycle of an
ultrasonic test
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
The clock triggers the timebase and pulser
at regular, evenly spaced intervals
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
The time base initiates time/distance display
on the instrument’s horizontal scale
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
The pulser sends an electrical pulse to the
transducer where it is converted to sound
– The initial pulse goes through the receiver/amplifier to
the display
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
Sound travels through the test object as
time elapses along the display
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
Sound reflects from material boundaries
and discontinuities
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
Reflection sound “strikes” the transducer
and is converted into voltage
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
Transducer output voltage is processed by
the receiver and displayed
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• The clock emits a trigger signal, repeated at
a given frequency called pulse repetition
rate or update rate
• Pulse repetition frequency (PRF) can be
varied by the operator on some
instruments, is self-adjusting on others
• When PRF is too fast, wraparound (display
of echoes from previous test cycles) occurs
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Pulse repetition rate can be calculated from
the following formula:
1,000,000 sec
Test Cycle Length
prf
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Duration of transducer ringing determines
the length of the dead zone
• Dead zone is the depth range in the test
material from which no indications can be
displayed
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Timebase Controls
– Zero Offset Control
• Adjusts when the horizontal display starts
relative to the activation of the initial pulse
• Visual effect: shifts indications to the left or
right without changing the space between
them
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Timebase Controls
– Range Control
• Adjusts the amount of time displayed along
the horizontal scale to correspond with sound
travel time through a specific thickness of
material
• Visual effect: increases or decreases the
spacing between echoes along the horizontal
scale
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Timebase Controls
– Coarse Range:
• selects from a series of standard range
settings (e.g., 0.5", 1", 2", 5", 10", 20", 50",
100", 200")
– Fine Range:
• allows selection ranges between the standard
range settings
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Timebase Controls
– Velocity Control:
• adjusts the amount of time displayed along
the horizontal scale to correspond with sound
travel time through material of a particular
velocity
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Electric Zero
– the point in time when
the initial pulse is
activated
• Acoustic Zero
– the point in time at
which the echo from
the front surface of the
test material returns to
the transducer
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Acoustic Zero is the actual start of material
thickness/distance measurement
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Pulser Controls
– Pulser Energy Control
• adjusts the amount of voltage applied to the
transducer
– Damping Control
• adjusts transducer performance for
resolution versus penetrating power
Note: Both Pulser Energy and Damping affect duration
of the dead zone
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• The receiver processes and amplifies signals
going to the Display
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Receiver processing is provided by rectifier
(detector) and filter sub-circuit
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• RF: signal trace
sweeps at mid-screen
height, with echo
signals causing both
upward and
downward deflections
of the trace
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Video: signal trace sweeps
along bottom of screen,
with echo signals causing
upward-only deflections of
the trace
• Full wave video: both the
upward and downward
RF deflections are
combined into upward-
only deflections of the
trace
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Half wave positive
video: the upward RF
deflections are
displayed as upward
deflections of the
trace; the downward
RF deflections are not
displayed
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Half wave negative
video: the downward
RF deflections are
displayed as upward
deflections of the
trace; the upward RF
deflections are not
displayed
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Filtering is a cosmetic change to the signal
that removes test information
• Frequency filter selects either narrow band
or broad band display
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
display improves 80
test sensitivity
60
Amplitude
40
• provides an 20
improved signal 0
to noise ratio 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
resolution Amplitude
60
40
– enhances separation of
20
reflectors 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Frequency (Megahertz)
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Amplifier
– A sub-circuit in the receiver circuit
– Multiplies the voltages of signals
– Controlled by a calibrated GAIN control
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Gain controls are calibrated in decibel (dB)
units
– sound amplitudes vary over enormous ranges
and decibels are used as a convenient
measurement of differences in sound amplitude
– the gain control is used to set signal amplitude
and to determine the difference in amplitude
between a discontinuity signal and a reference
signal
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Decibel values are logarithmic
– basic dB/ratio equivalents
1 dB = 1.12 : 1
2 dB = 1.26 : 1
6 dB = 2 : 1
20 dB = 10 : 1
X : 1 anti logdB
dB
X : 1 anti log 20
20
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
The following formula is used for converting
ratios to decibels:
A
dB 20 log
1
10
A
2
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
ACTS
ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Additional instrument functions:
– Time Varied Gain (TVG), to correct for
distance/amplitude losses
– gates with audible and visual alarms
– digital distance/thickness readouts
– mathematical calculation circuitry for angle
beam testing
ACTS
EQUIPMENT TYPES
ACTS
PULSE ECHO
ACTS
AN ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT EVOLUTION
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
DIGITAL UT EQUIPMENT
ACTS
PHASED ARRAY
ACTS
PHASED ARRAY (con’t)
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
AN EVOLUTION IN THICKNESS GAGES
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
IMMERSION SYSTEMS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
OTHER SYSTEMS
Through-transmission with water columns
ACTS
SQUIRTERS
ACTS
ULTRASONIC
IMAGING
SYSTEM
ACTS
EQUIPMENT CALIBRATION
ACTS
INSTRUMENT CALIBRATION
• Calibration Blocks – used to calibrate UT
equipment for a specific examination. Can
be made with:
– Flat bottomed holes
– Notches
– Side drilled holes
– Step blocks for thickness measurement
ACTS
CALIBRATION AND REFERENCE
STANDARDS
• Reference Standards – manufactured in
accordance with codes or specifications to
provide universal comparison of equipment
performance including:
– IIW
– ASTM
– ASME
ACTS
REFERENCE STANDARDS
Distance Amplitude Blocks
• Distance
Set (Alcoa B)
• 19 blocks, each 2" diameter
• 3/4 deep flat-bottomed hole
in each block
• Used to evaluate discontinuity
size, set sensitivity, set DAC
ACTS
REFERENCE STANDARDS
Area Amplitude Blocks
• 8 blocks, each 3-3/4" long
x 1-15/16" square (or 2"
diameter)
• 3/4 deep flat-bottomed hole
in each block
• Labeled #1 - #8 for 64ths
of an inch hole diameter
• Used to check test system
linearity
ACTS
REFERENCE STANDARDS
Area Amplitude Hole Comparison
ACTS
REFERENCE STANDARDS
• IIW Blocks
– locate beam index
– check refracted angle
– calibrate sound path
distance
– calibrate sensitivity
– check straight beam
resolution
– check penetration
ACTS
REFERENCE STANDARDS
• IIW Block: Type 1
– reflector paths: 4 & 9 inches
ACTS
REFERENCE STANDARDS
• IIW Block: Type 2
– reflector paths: 2 & 4 inches
ACTS
REFERENCE STANDARDS
• IIW Block: Type V-1
– reflector paths: 100 & 200 millimeters
ACTS
BEAM INDEX POINT
• The sound exit (beam
index) point needs to
be marked on angle
beam transducers in
order to check
refracted angle and as
reference point for
distance
measurements
ACTS
BEAM INDEX POINT
ACTS
BEAM INDEX POINT
ACTS
BEAM INDEX POINT
ACTS
REFRACTED ANGLE
• The transducer
refracted angle
needs to be checked
– it must be within
the tolerance
required for
detecting the
discontinuities it is
expected to find
ACTS
REFRACTED ANGLE
ACTS
REFRACTED ANGLE
• To check refracted angle, place the transducer
over the degree marking for the angle to be
checked (e.g., 700) and aim the sound beam at the
target hole
ACTS
REFRACTED ANGLE
• Move the transducer forward and
backward to obtain a peak amplitude signal
from the target hole
ACTS
REFRACTED ANGLE
• When peak amplitude is obtained, the beam
index indicates the point on the scale that
represents the transducer’s refracted angle
ACTS
CALIBRATE RANGE SCALE
ACTS
CALIBRATE RANGE SCALE
Couple the
transducer to the
top of the block and
obtain echo signals
from the radii
producing 4” and
9” of sound path
ACTS
CALIBRATE RANGE SCALE
• Move the
transducer forward
and backward to
maximize the
amplitude of echo
signals from from
the radii
ACTS
CALIBRATE RANGE SCALE
• Using the DELAY and MTL VEL controls, align
the left edges of the echoes with the 4, and 9 scale
divisions on the display screen
ACTS
SENSITIVITY CALIBRATION
• To calibrate sensitivity
for the 700 degree
transducer, obtain a
maximized echo from
the .060” side-drilled
hole.
• Indicated sound path
distance should be
1.75”
ACTS
REFERENCE STANDARDS
• DSC Block
– locate beam index
– check refracted angle
– calibrate sound path
distance
• sound paths
– 1 & 5 inches
– 3 & 7 inches
– calibrate sensitivity
ACTS
REFERENCE STANDARDS
• DC Block
– locate beam index
– calibrate sound path distance
• Sound Paths: 1 & 2 inches
ACTS
REFERENCE STANDARDS
• SC Block
– check refracted angle
– calibrate sensitivity
ACTS
REFERENCE STANDARDS
• Resolution Test Block
– Check angle beam resolution
ACTS
REFERENCE STANDARDS
ASME Basic Block: Article V, Section 5
ACTS
REFERENCE STANDARDS
ASME Basic Block: Article V, Section 5
ACTS
REFERENCE STANDARDS
ASME Basic Block: Hole Diameters
ACTS
REFERENCE STANDARDS
ASME Basic Block: Section V, Article 4
ACTS
EPOCH 4
CALIBRATION
(optional)
“AUTO-CAL” FEATURE!
Angle Beam Example
ACTS
EXAMPLE:
Transducer 45o Wedge IIW Type I Test Block
ACTS
ANGLE BEAM CALIBRATION
(USING “AUTO-CAL”)
The four steps for an angle beam calibration are:
• Once the signal is peaked, mark the side of the wedge directly over the zero mark. This is the Beam Index Point.
ACTS
VERIFY THE REFRACTED ANGLE
(BETA)
NOTE:
The refracted angle of the wedge should have already been entered into the
EPOCH 4 at the beginning of the calibration. However, this angle must be
verified due to material variations or wear on the wedge.
1. Position the probe over the appropriate angle mark on the IIW block (matched to the
angle on the wedge).
ACTS
3. Once the signal is peaked, hold the probe stationary. Note
the degree mark on the block that lines up with the Beam
Index Point (B.I.P. was found in the previous step). This is
the actual refracted angle (Beta) for the particular
transducer and probe.
4. If the Beta value differs from the one initially entered, enter
a new one by pressing ANGLEand then fine tuning the value
using the or keys.
ACTS
CALIBRATE FOR DISTANCE
1. Couple the probe to the IIW Type 1 Reference block so that
the B.I.P. is directly over the “0” mark.
2. Set the initial Range to 10 inches.
3. Adjust the [ZERO OFFSET] so that both the 4” and 9”echoes
are visible on the screen. The [GAIN] may have to be
increased to view the 9” echo.
0
1”
4”
IIW TYPE 1 REFERENCE BLOCK
ACTS
CALIBRATE FOR DISTANCE
• Position Gate 1 over the
4” echo.
CONTRAST
CALIBRATION
• Press ZERO
. Wait for a
OFFSET
CALIBRATION
• Press
REJECT
VEL
by pressing 2 F ND
then . GAIN
ACTS
“TOGGLE” FEATURE
• Press:
ECHO-ECHO
DEPTH
%AMP then F4
ACTS
CALIBRATE 5" RANGE ON IIW
BLOCK TYPE 1
1. Place straight beam 3. Change to an angle
transducer on 3.6" beam transducer and
sound path. aim beam down 4"
radius.
2. Position back
4. Set first back reflection
reflections at 4 & 8 on at 8 on the horizontal
the horizontal scale scale using Delay (Zero
using Delay (Zero Offset control).
Offset) and Range Note: Do not adjust Range
controls. control after connecting
angle beam transducer.
ACTS
TEST PERFORMANCE
VARIABLES
• Detectability: the ability to reflect from a
material interface of a given size (e.g., a
discontinuity). Detectability improves as
wavelength decreases. Wavelength is
decreased by increasing test frequency
ACTS
TEST PERFORMANCE
VARIABLES
• Penetration: the ability to pass through a
material interface of a given size (e.g., grain
boundaries and inherent porosity).
Penetration and detectability are inversely
related. Penetration improves as
wavelength increases. Wavelength is
increased by decreasing test frequency
ACTS
TEST PERFORMANCE
VARIABLES
• Sensitivity: the ability of the test system to
display a given size reflector at a given
distance along the sound beam axis.
Sensitivity depends primarily on six factors:
– Beam Spread
– Near Field Length
– Frequency Bandwidth
– Transducer Crystal Material
– Test System Signal to Noise Ratio
– Resolution
ACTS
TEST PERFORMANCE
VARIABLES
• Sensitivity (continued)
– Beamspread: As beamspread is decreased,
more sound pressure per unit area strikes a
reflector, thus increasing echo amplitude.
Beamspread is decreased by increasing
transducer area and/or increasing frequency.
ACTS
TEST PERFORMANCE
VARIABLES
• Sensitivity (continued)
– Near Field Length: As near field length varies,
the position of a reflector relative to the y0 point
likewise varies. Sensitivity is optimized when
the reflector is positioned near the beginning of
the far field.
ACTS
TEST PERFORMANCE
VARIABLES
• Sensitivity (continued)
– Frequency Bandwidth: As bandwidth is
decreased, sensitivity increases. Bandwidth is
decreased by decreasing transducer damping.
– Transducer Crystal Material: Piezoelectric
crystal materials vary in their efficiency as both
transmitters and receivers of sound.
– Test System Signal to Noise Ratio: Signal/Noise
Ratio depends on a number of factors such as
penetration and test instrument design.
ACTS
TEST PERFORMANCE
VARIABLES
• Sensitivity (continued)
– Resolution: the ability of the test system to
individually display reflectors located at slightly
different depths along the sound beam
– Resolution is directly proportional to
Frequency Bandwidth, inversely related to
pulse length, and improves as wavelength is
decreased.
ACTS
INSTRUMENT PERFORMANCE
EVALUATION
• Instrument performance should be checked
prior to use in order to verify that test
output will be valid.
• An important instrument performance
category is linearity.
• Linearity means that output is proportional
to input.
ACTS
INSTRUMENT PERFORMANCE
EVALUATION
• Different codes, standards, specifications,
and procedures have individual
requirements regarding which performance
characteristics are checked, as well as how
they are to be done.
ACTS
INSTRUMENT
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
• Instrument performance characteristics
include, but are not limited to:
– Horizontal Linearity
– Vertical Linearity
– Amplitude Control Linearity
– Dynamic Range
– Signal-to-Noise Ratio
ACTS
HORIZONTAL LINEARITY
ACTS
HORIZONTAL LINEARITY
• An instrument is exhibiting horizontal
linearity when a series of back reflections is
evenly spaced along the horizontal scale.
• Each back reflection’s position must be
observed when the peak of the indication is
raised to the same amplitude (for example,
80% FSH)
ACTS
VERTICAL LINEARITY
• Vertical linearity means that indication
amplitudes are proportional to voltage
inputs to the instrument.
• Specifically, the indication amplitudes
represent transducer output voltages
produced by echoes received from reflectors
in the test material.
ACTS
VERTICAL LINEARITY
• Vertical linearity is exhibited when a pair of
indications that are set to a certain amplitude
ratio (for example, 2:1) maintain that ratio as gain
is varied.
• Typically, the amplitude of the higher amplitude
indication is varied by specific increments over a
considerable portion of the display’s vertical
range and the amplitude of the lower amplitude
indication is observed.
ACTS
GAIN CONTROL LINEARITY
• Gain Control Linearity means that a
specific variation of dB gain will produce an
indication amplitude variation
corresponding to the ratio associated with
that decibel value.
• Specifically, the indication amplitudes
represent transducer output voltages
produced by echoes received from reflectors
in the test material.
ACTS
DISPLAY DYNAMIC RANGE
ACTS
SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO
ACTS
III – EVALUATION OF BASE
MATERIALS
• Ingots
• Castings
• Slab and Billets
• Plate and Sheet
• Bar and Rod
• Pipe and Tubing
• Forgings
ACTS
INGOTS
• Technique to be used
– Compressional Wave
• Discontinuities to be detected:
– Pipe
– Laminations
– Inclusions
– Voids
– Other?
– Is the ingot to be
tested hot or cold?
ACTS
CASTINGS
• Techniques to be used?
• Problems to consider
– Surface
– Configuration
– Grain structure
• Discontinuities to be detected:
– Inclusions
– Gas voids
– Shrinkage(?)
– Hot tears
ACTS
SLABS AND BILLETS
• Technique to be used
– Compressional Wave
• Discontinuities to be detected:
– Laminations
– Inclusions
– Other?
ACTS
PLATE AND SHEET
• Techniques to be used
– Lamb Wave
– Compressional Wave
• Discontinuities to be detected:
– Laminations
– Splits
ACTS
BAR AND ROD
• Techniques to be used:
– Compressional Wave
– Shear Wave (?)
• Discontinuities to be detected:
– Pipe
– Seams(?)
ACTS
PIPE AND TUBING
• Techniques to be used:
– Compressional Wave
– Shear Wave
• Discontinuities to be detected:
– Laminations
– Seams
– Other?
ACTS
FORGINGS
• Techniques to be used:
– Compressional Wave
• Discontinuities to be detected:
– Bursts
– Inclusions
– Flake
– Other?
ACTS
IV – ULTRASONIC TEST
APPLICATIONS
• Thickness
• Flat surfaces
• Curved surfaces
• Thick and thin
products
• Irregular shapes
• Welds
• Bonded structures
• Composites
ACTS
APPLICATIONS
• Compressional
– Plate, Thickness, Bar, Castings,Forgings
• Shear
– Pipe, Tubing, Welds
• Surface
– Surface discontinuities
• Lamb
– Thin sheet
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
THICKNESS
TESTING
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
HOW TO INSPECT:
• Flat surfaces -
• Curved surfaces -
• Thick and thin
products -
• Irregular shapes –
• Bonded structures –
• Composites -
ACTS
ULTRASONIC
WELD INSPECTION
• Calculations
– V-path
– Leg length
– Skip distance
– Surface distance
– Depth
• Weld discontinuities
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
• V-Path
• Leg Length
• Skip Distance
Note: It is necessary to first mark the
transducer beam index point and then
determine refracted angle in order to perform
these calculations.
ACTS
CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
• V-Path: the angular v-shaped sound path
traveled by the sound beam from the sound entry
point on the test object to the opposite surface and
back again to the entry surface.
– Calculation is necessary for determining range scale
prior to angle beam distance calibration.
ACTS
CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
Formula for calculating V-Path:
2t
V Path
cos
Where:
t = plate thickness
= refracted angle
ACTS
CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
Example
Calculate the V-Path where:
t = 2 inches
= 70º
22 4
V Path 11 .7
cos 70 .342
ACTS
CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
• Leg Length: the angular sound path traveled by
the sound beam from the sound entry point on the
test object to the opposite surface (1/2 V-Path).
– Calculation necessary for determining in which leg the
discontinuity was intercepted
ACTS
CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
Formula for calculating Leg Length:
t
Leg Length
cos
Where:
t = plate thickness
= refracted angle
ACTS
CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
Example
Calculate the Leg Length where:
t = 2 inches
= 70º
2 2
Leg Length 5.85
cos .342
ACTS
CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
• Skip Distance: the surface distance across
one full V-Path.
– Calculation necessary for determining the
extent of scanning during weld inspection.
ACTS
CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
Formula for calculating Skip Distance:
ACTS
CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
Example
Calculate the Skip Distance where:
t = 2 inches
= 70º
ACTS
LOCATION CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
• Surface Distance: The distance along the test
material surface from the sound entry point to the
point directly above the point of sonic impact on
the reflector.
ACTS
LOCATION CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
Formula for calculating Surface Distance:
Where:
t = plate thickness
= refracted angle
ACTS
LOCATION CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
Example
Calculate Surface Distance where:
t=2“
= 70º
Sound Path = 5”
ACTS
LOCATION CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
Formula for calculating depth of (1st leg)
Where:
t = plate thickness
= refracted angle
ACTS
LOCATION CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
Example
Calculate Defect Depth where:
t=2“
= 70º
Sound Path = 5”
Depth cos 70 5 0
Where:
t = plate thickness
= refracted angle
ACTS
LOCATION CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
Example
Calculate Flaw Depth where:
t=2“
= 70º
Sound Path = 7”
Depth 2 2 cos 70 7
0
ACTS
WELD DISCONTINUITIES
Good Weld (Free of discontinuities)
ACTS
WELD DISCONTINUITIES
Base Metal De-Lamination
ACTS
WELD DISCONTINUITIES
Lack of Penetration
ACTS
WELD DISCONTINUITIES
Lack of Root Fusion
ACTS
WELD DISCONTINUITIES
Root Undercut
ACTS
WELD DISCONTINUITIES
Weld Metal Root Crack
ACTS
WELD DISCONTINUITIES
Cap Undercut
ACTS
WELD DISCONTINUITIES
Toe Crack
ACTS
WELD DISCONTINUITIES
Side Wall Lack of Fusion
ACTS
WELD DISCONTINUITIES
Inter-Bead Lack of Fusion
ACTS
WELD DISCONTINUITIES
Porosity
ACTS
WELD DISCONTINUITIES
Slag Inclusions
ACTS
WELD DISCONTINUITIES
Weld Metal Center Crack
ACTS
WELD DISCONTINUITIES
Transverse Crack
ACTS
VI - UT TRANSDUCER
CHARACTERISTICS
• Construction
• Transducer types
• Transducer
performance
ACTS
TRANSDUCER CONSTRUCTION
• Crystal element: thickness determines
frequency of vibration
– the thinner the crystal, the higher the frequency
ACTS
TRANSDUCER CONSTRUCTION
• Electrodes: establish electrical contact with
the crystal
ACTS
TRANSDUCER CONSTRUCTION
• Frontal Member
– Contact transducers: wear plate provides
protective contact surface
– Immersion transducers: waterproof front
surface instead of wear plate
ACTS
TRANSDUCER CONSTRUCTION
• Damping Block:
– controls crystal ringing
– absorbs rear sound waves
ACTS
TRANSDUCER CONSTRUCTION
• Complete
transducer
assembly is called
– a transducer, or
– a search unit, or
– a probe
ACTS
TRANSDUCER TYPES
ACTS
TRANSDUCER TYPES
• Straight Beam, Contact: introduces sound
perpendicular to the test surface to obtain
echoes from reflectors parallel to the test
surface
ACTS
TRANSDUCER TYPES
ACTS
TRANSDUCER TYPES
ACTS
TRANSDUCER TYPES
• Paintbrush: long, rectangular active area,
usually made from a "mosaic" of crystals,
for rapid scanning of large surfaces
ACTS
TRANSDUCER TYPES
• Dual Element: for testing materials thinner
than approximately 1"
– especially effective for thickness gauging of
materials with corroded/eroded back surfaces
ACTS
TRANSDUCER TYPES
• Angle Beam:
introduces sound at an
angle to the test
surface to obtain
echoes from reflectors
obliquely oriented to
the test surface
ACTS
TRANSDUCER TYPES
• Immersion: for use in a liquid environment
– focused: concave surface
ACTS
TRANSDUCER PERFORMANCE
ACTS
TRANSDUCER PERFORMANCE
CHECKS
• Frequency response
– Sensitivity
– Center frequency
– Bandwidth
– Sound field measurements
• Near surface resolution
• Depth resolution
• Angle of refraction (angle beam transducers)
ACTS
VII - CODES, STANDARDS,
SPECIFICATIONS AND PROCEDURES
• Overview of commonly used standards
• Definition of Codes, Standards, and
Specifications
• Structure of Standards
– Elements of a test procedure
• Samples/excerpts of Specifications
• Weld discontinuity evaluations
ACTS
OVERVIEW OF COMMON
STANDARDS
• ASTM
• AWS
• ASME
• API
• Military Standards
• Construction Standards
ACTS
CODES, STANDARDS, AND
SPECIFICATIONS
• What is a Code?
– Statutes or rules methodically arranged defining
minimum requirements
• What is a Standard?
– A document that has been developed, established,
and approved through the consensus process
• What is a Specification?
– An explicit set of requirements to be satisfied by
a material, product, system or service
ACTS
STRUCTURE OF STANDARDS
1. Instrumentation
2. Calibration
3. Search unit data
4. Display settings
5. Area to be scanned and scanning techniques
6. Indications to be recorded and record format
7. Accept/reject criteria
8. Personnel certifications/qualifications
ACTS
ELEMENTS OF A TEST
PROCEDURE
1. Scope
2. Reference Documents
3. Personnel Qualification
4. Equipment Specifications
5. Reference Standards
ACTS
ELEMENTS OF A TEST
PROCEDURE (con’t)
6. Equipment Qualification
7. Test Calibration
8. Test Technique
9. Accept/Reject Criteria
10. Recording/Reporting Procedure
ACTS
SAMPLE SPECIFICATIONS
• Refer to 180 to 189 in the Classroom
Training Manual
ACTS
VIII - EVALUATION OF UT
RESULTS
• Amplitude
• Signal position
• Signal shape
• Signal movement
• Orientation
ACTS
REFLECTOR SIZE ESTIMATION
• Two classes of evaluation techniques for
reflector size estimation
• Reflector Mapping Techniques
– plotting the shape of a reflector (used for infinite
reflectors)
• Reflector Comparison Techniques
– for comparing amplitude of reflectors in the test
object to a reference reflector (used for small
reflectors)
ACTS
REFLECTOR SIZE
ESTIMATION
REFLECTOR MAPPING TECHNIQUE
• Half amplitude (6 dB drop) technique:
• The center of the sound beam is used to map
the perimeter or length of a reflector
• The center of the sound beam is located by
finding the point on a reflector where sound
amplitude decreases to one half (-6 dB) of full
beam amplitude
ACTS
REFLECTOR SIZE ESTIMATION
REFLECTOR COMPARISON TECHNIQUES
• Distance Amplitude
Correction (DAC)
curve technique: a
curve showing
amplitude versus
distance for a given
reflector is manually
or electronically
plotted on the CRT
screen
ACTS
REFLECTOR SIZE ESTIMATION
REFLECTOR COMPARISON TECHNIQUES
• Time Varied Gain
technique: the test
instrument varies gain
as a function of
distance so that a
given reflector exhibits
the same displayed
amplitude at all
distances
ACTS
REFLECTOR SIZE ESTIMATION
REFLECTOR COMPARISON TECHNIQUES
ACTS
REFLECTOR SIZE ESTIMATION
REFLECTOR COMPARISON TECHNIQUES
• Flat-bottomed holes
are effective as
reference reflectors
for straight beam
transducers
ACTS
REFLECTOR SIZE ESTIMATION
REFLECTOR COMPARISON TECHNIQUES
ACTS
REPORTING DATA
• Instrument identification
• Transducer(s) frequency, size, type, and
serial numbers
• Part details (material, thickness, etc.)
• Procedure/technique used
• Scanning
• Indications - size, location, type
• Inspector, date, etc.
ACTS
ADVANTAGES OF UT
ACTS
ACTS